Books Received

Abstract

This paper analyses the organizational, financial and technological incentives that service organizations used to motivate farmers to finance agricultural research and extension in Benin. Understanding the foundations and implications of these motivation systems is important for improving farmer financial participation in agricultural research and extension.

We studied three cases of farmer financial participation in the field of agricultural research and extension in Benin. We conducted semi-structured interviews with leaders of service organizations and farmers’ associations, local authorities and individual farmers. Our interviews focused on service delivery systems, mechanisms of farmers’ financial contribution, the functioning of farmers’ associations, and the appropriateness of services provided. We performed thematic and comparative analyses at the interfaces between (1) service providers and partner–farmer associations, (2) service providers and delivered services, and (3) farmers/farmers’ associations and services.

Incentives for farmer financial participation are the increasing participation strategy, the fulfillment of farmers’ needs and the local leadership valorization. The selection and combination of their variants determine the motivating capacity and orientation of service organizations. Conversely to the increasing participation strategy, an effective fulfillment of farmers’ needs and local leadership valorization can lead to sustainable motivation. As the fulfillment of farmers’ needs determines importantly the effectiveness and sustainability of farmers’ motivation, the strategies of farmer financial participation are likely to fail if there are no successful agricultural technological incentives.

In the current context of privatization of agricultural services in developing countries, this analytical framework is of interest for policy makers and development workers for identifying conditions of farmer financial participation and designing effective motivation strategies.     

The gender of the extension agent and farmers' access to and participation in agricultural extension in Nigeria

Abstract

A study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of male and female extension agents in reaching farmers, especially women, with extension services in Nigeria. Specially the study determined the levels of awareness of and participation in extension activities, adoption of and technical knowledge of recommended agricultural technologies/practices, satisfaction with the quality of extension services provided and agents' credibility of men and women farmers under male and female extension agents supervision. Data gathered from 141 men and 72 women farmers supervised by male agents and 22 men and 93 women farmers supervised by female agents in Oyo, Kaduna and Rivers State Agricultural Development Projects in Nigeria form the empirical basis for the study. Even though men farmers are more aware of and participated more in the extension activities organised by agents than women farmers, the study shows that women farmers, who are supervised by female agents have more access to extension services than women farmers who work with male agents. Specifically, women farmers, who had females for extension agents had relatively higher levels of awareness and participation of the extension activities organised, adoption of and technical knowledge of recommended technologies/practices and satisfaction with the quality of agents' services and credibility. These differential effects of female and male agents on women's access to extension are significant for the delivery of extension services to women farmers, especially. Extension organisations must encourage and recruit more females for extension work done at the same time evolve strategies that will help male agents to work better with women farmers.     

Adoption of Soil Health Improvement Strategies by Australian Farmers: I. Attitudes,Management and Extension Implications

Abstract

Purpose: There is inconsistency in the design, understanding, implementation and monitoring of soil health programmes. Despite mounting scientific evidence for the credibility of certain soil health indicators, an increase in the reporting of programme benefits, and progress in communicating these benefits, many farmers remain hesitant to implement structured management plans and strategies tailored to address soil health. The purpose of this research is to investigate the proportion of Lachlan and Macquarie Valley landholders who implement a structured soil health programme and to better understand the role of extension in the management of these.

Design: Non-parametric analysis of a mail-based survey supported with content analysis of landholder comments was used.

Findings: Results suggests that the overall landholder attitude towards soil health management is positive, although soil health management programmes are often inconsistent, unstructured, or ad hoc. Ongoing communication between landholders, agronomists, extension agencies and scientists is shown to be vital in the adoption of soil health management programmes.

Practical implication: By understanding landholder attitudes and management practices, as well as the role of extension, extension efforts can become more targeted and effective.

Value: This article shows that soil health management is a primary focus of Australian farmers and elucidates the importance of extension efforts in management and planning. Areas where extension should be focussed are identified.     

e-Agriculture Prototype for Knowledge Facilitation among Tribal Farmers of North-East India: Innovations,Impact and Lessons

Abstract

Purpose: This case study deals with the implementation methodology, innovations and lessons of the ICT initiative in providing agricultural extension services to the rural tribal farming community of North-East India.

Methodology: This study documents the ICT project implementation challenges, impact among farmers and briefly indicates lessons of the e-agriculture project.

Findings: The e-agriculture prototype demonstrated that the Rs. 2,400 (USD 53) cost of the extension services to provide farm advisory services was saved per farmer per year, expenditure was reduced 3.6 times in comparison with the conventional extension system. Sixteenfold less time was required by the farmers for availing the services and threefold less time was required to deliver the services to the farmers compared with the conventional extension system. However, this article argues that in less developed areas, information through ICTs alone may not create expected development. Along with appropriate agricultural information and knowledge, field demonstrations and forward (farm machinery, manure, seeds) and backward linkages (post-harvest technology and market) need to be facilitated with appropriate public–private partnership between knowledge and other rural advisory service providers for agricultural development.

Practical implications: This article lists a number of practical lessons which will be useful for the successful planning and implementation of e-agriculture projects in developing countries.

Original value: This article is a first case study on ICTs for agricultural extension initiatives among the tribal farmers who dominate the less developed North-East India.     

Farmers' Adoption of Soil Conservation Technologies: A Case Study from Osun State,Nigeria

Abstract

The main objective of this study was to determine the attitude of farmers towards erosion and the adoption of appropriate soil conservation technologies (SCTs). For the survey, farmers were selected from the communities Esa Oke, Elwure and Owode-Ede and Akoda in Osun State in Nigeria. In the first three communities farmers did receive training on soil conservation, in the fourth not. About 60 farmers were interviewed to obtain information on personal and socio-economic characteristics, awareness of environmental problems, attitude towards erosion control and experiences with SCTs. Statistical data analyses (analyses of frequencies, correlation, t-test, χ²-test) were made to examine possible relationships among parameters and the influence of factors on adoption.

Most respondents were advanced in years, responsible for large households and characterized by low levels of income and literacy. Soil erosion was seen as a problem confronting agricultural production only to a small extent. The adoption rate of SCTs was low, as only mulching, cover cropping, contour tillage and cut-off drainage were practised and often rejected. Low labour-demand, the availability of common equipment, low costs of application, ease of practice and compatibility with the existing farming system influenced adoption.

The observed positive correlation between level of education, knowledge of appropriate technologies, farming experience and the number of SCTs adopted emphasizes the importance for farmers of education and training. Strengthening agricultural extension agencies for capacity building is an important tool for improving soil conservation in Nigeria.

The paper clarifies with specific examples the causes of the low rates of adoption of available technologies, with a reduced impact of research and of efforts to achieve food security and sustainable production at village level.     

Farmers’ participation in extension programs and technology adoption in rural Nepal: a logistic regression analysis

Purpose: This paper examines the factors affecting farmers’ participation in extension programs and adoption of improved seed varieties in the hills of rural Nepal.

Methodology/approach: Cross-sectional farm-level data were collected during July and August 2014. A sample of 198 farm households was selected for interviewing by using a multistage, random sampling technique. We employed a logistic regression model, frequency counts, and percentages to analyze the data.

Findings: Adoption decisions were mainly affected by extension-related variables – training, membership in a farmers’ group, and off-farm employment. Extension participation was found to be influenced by socioeconomic variables – age, education, household size, and distance to the extension office. Our findings reveal that distance to the extension office and off-farm employment limited participation in extension activities and adoption, respectively, and education, household size, and group membership stimulated participation in extension programs.

Practical implications: Recognition of the determinants of farmers’ participation in extension services and innovation adoption ensures that targeted extension approaches are used to address these factors in various stages of planning, delivering, and evaluating extension programs.

Theoretical implications: Innovation adoption follows a systematic decision-making process. Although personal characteristics are important, widespread use of new technology requires a conducive social and institutional context. Because contexts vary by country or region, extension services providers should create institutions favorable for innovation adoption within a social system.

Originality/value: This research is original and highly valuable to identify the factors associated with extension participation and innovation adoption in the rural hilly region of Nepal. This also provides a new direction to operationalize farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension and so can be helpful for agricultural policy-makers in devising programs of extension services.     

Barriers to Participatory Extension in Egypt: Agricultural Workers' Perspectives

Purpose: This paper examines extension practises of agricultural workers within the Egyptian government and the perceived barriers they face in implementing participatory approaches, identifying improvements required in research and extension processes to meet the real needs of Egyptian farming communities.

Design/Methodology/Approach: Key barriers for engaging in participatory extension were identified using content analysis of semi-structured interviews, surveys and focus group discussion of 37 government agricultural workers along with participant observation and review of existing literature.

Findings: The majority of workers surveyed understood basic participatory extension principles and desired to use these approaches. Changing from traditional ‘top down’ extension to systems that engage with farmers' needs at the community level is made difficult due to the aging and poorly functioning Village Extension Worker (VEW) network. Thus, it is far easier for the research driven extension programmes to use technology transfer models.

Practical Implications: Participatory extension relies on strong relationship building and open communication between farmers, extension workers, researchers, interest groups and policy-makers. The Egyptian government must properly establish and resource the pivotal role of VEWs within the extension system to meet its strategic aims of modernising agriculture, developing food security and improving the livelihoods of rural inhabitants.

Originality/Value: This paper captures the unique perspectives of government research, extension and education workers involved in agricultural development at a time directly after the 2010 revolution, when they were able to more openly reflect on the past and present situations.     

Social Network Structures among Groundnut Farmers

Abstract

Purpose: Groundnut farmers in East Africa have experienced declines in production despite research and extension efforts to increase productivity. This study examined how social network structures related to acquisition of information about new seed varieties and productivity among groundnut farmers in Uganda and Kenya.

Design/methodology/approach: Data came from face-to-face interviews with a sample of 491 farmers randomly selected from a larger frame purposefully selected to represent farmers who had worked with researchers and farmers who had not, and to represent both male and female farmers. We used social network analysis to visualize and interpret patterns of farmers' networks with regard to information sources, productivity supports and local group affiliations.

Findings: Ugandan farmers primarily used weak ties with researchers and extension agents as sources of information. In contrast, Kenyan farmers used strong ties with close associates. For farmers in both countries weak ties were least associated with productivity. Strong ties, natural factors and farmers' own experience with new varieties were most associated with productivity. The majority of farmers had ties to local groups to strategically pool risks and access available resources.

Practical implications: Visualizing farmers' social networks enables policy-makers and change agents to identify relevant social relationships that could be utilized strategically to increase the capacities of poor farming communities.

Originality/value: The study demonstrates that important differences in social network structures can exist among farmers in similar geographic regions producing similar crops.     

Assessment of Adoption Gaps in Management of Aflatoxin Contamination of Groundnut (Arachis Hypogaea L.)

Abstract

One of the major impediments for diversification of groundnut (Arachis Hypogaea L.) as food crop is aflatoxin contamination. The study was conducted with an objective to assess the adoption gaps in aflatoxin management practices of groundnut (AMPG) and the farmer's characteristics influencing these gaps. The study used an expost-facto research design and multi-stage random sampling. The data were collected from 180 respondents through interview schedule. For measuring adoption gap, knowledge of AMPG and perception of groundnut quality suitable scales were developed. The data were subjected to multiple regression analysis to know the characteristics, which influenced the adoption gaps in AMPG. The majority of farmers were in high adoption gap category, as most of the farmers had not adopted the harvest and post-harvest management practices. Farmers' characteristics such as knowledge, market orientation and innovativeness influenced the adoption gap significantly. These three variables put together explained 58% of variation in adoption gap. Based on the results, it is suggested to formulate strategies to increase the knowledge of farmers through various extension approaches. If the knowledge on AMPG is improved the adoption gaps can be reduced. The maiden research effort, shed light on the socio-economic dimensions of aflatoxin contamination and constraints for aflatoxin management at farmers' level. The study has significance for the policy makers, extension departments and groundnut farmers for production of quality groundnut.     

Implications of Farmers’ Propensity to Discontinue Adoption of Downy-Mildew Resistant Maize and Improved Cowpea Varieties for Extension Education in Southwestern Nigeria

Abstract

This paper examines the implications of farmers’ propensity to discontinue the adoption of agricultural technologies in southwestern Nigeria. This is predicated on the fact that extension education process should be proactive in addressing farmers in order to sustain the adoption process. Empirical studies looking at diffusion processes from an ex post perspective have failed to deliver in terms of effective ex ante policies and intervention strategies, and the transfer of the technology model has lost much of its lustre. Following a survey of arable crop farmers in two states of southwestern Nigeria, a Tobit model was estimated on the data collected during the 2002 growing season in order to identify variables significant in the farmers’ discontinuance behaviour. The variables identified are: attitude, extension visit, feedback provision, marketability and input availability. From the estimation, foremost among the significant variables leading to discontinuance of improved maize and cowpea varieties is extension visits.     

Assessment of farmer-oriented agricultural extension intervention in Iran

Purpose: The main purpose of this study was to determine the characteristics of farmer-oriented policies as regards the Iranian agricultural extension system. Methodology: To fulfill this objective, a Delphi technique was utilized. The study used a series of three steps, engaging a panel of experts on farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension system. Finding: The characteristics of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system were classified into six categories including: need-based programs, proper interaction among stakeholders, decentralization and higher stakeholders’ participation, enabling stakeholders with emphasis on smallholder farmers, market-oriented programs and integrated policies. The findings indicated that ‘enabling farmers to solve their technical problems’ and ‘engaging farmers in planning, executing and evaluating of the programs’ had the highest percentage of agreement. Theoretical implication: From a theoretical point of view, the finding of this research has introduced six categories as characteristics of a farmer-oriented policy that could have practical implications for agricultural extension system in Iran. Also, this paper proposes a framework for future studies in the field of farmer-oriented policies in agricultural extension system. Practical implications: Recognizing the characteristics of farmer-oriented intervention of agricultural extension shows that targeted extension approaches are needed to pay attention to these characteristics in various stages of planning, delivering and evaluation of extension programs. Originality/value: This paper provides a comprehensive list of characteristics of farmer-oriented policies of agricultural extension that can be helpful for agricultural policy-makers in devising programs of extension services.     

Claims and counterclaims: institutional arrangements and farmers’ response to the delivery and adoption of innovations in the Okavango Delta,Botswana

Purpose: This article examined how institutional factors influencing the promotion of two elephant crop-raiding deterrent innovations (ECDIs) introduced to farmers through a ministry-based extension system in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, have impacted farmers’ adoption behaviour. Methodology: A standardised interview schedule was used to elicit responses from 388 randomly sampled subsistence arable farmers on how institutions influenced the adoption of ECDIs in five communities in the study area. This was complemented by focus group discussions to obtain in-depth information on the subject-matter. Key informants interviews were also conducted with purposively selected extension agents, village project committee chairpersons and village dikgosi. Findings: Four institutional factors were found to be critical for the adoption of ECDIs. These include institutional relations, availability and/or supply of deterrent innovation inputs, farmers’ contact with extension agents and government support for extension services. Theoretical Implications: Immediate and widespread adoption of ECDIs in the ever-changing socio-economic and political environment can be enhanced by context-specific institutional arrangements in addressing social and organisational constraints to innovation adoption. Originality: This paper invoked organisational theory to contribute to the scholarly debate on how agricultural extension systems influence farming clientele’s behaviour and social change. It offers the first attempt in the investigation of the role of extension and associated institutions/organisations in promoting adoption of ECDIs among subsistence farmers in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Findings indicate that local farmers do not perceive extension agencies to hold monopoly of ideas and solutions to their unique problems.     

Water Security and Farming Systems: Implications for Advisory Practice and Policy-Making

Abstract

Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to investigate agroforestry adoption by smallholder farmers in Gutu District, Zimbabwe.

Design/Methodology/Approach: The methodology was based on field data collected through household questionnaires, key informant interviews and direct observations.

Findings: Major findings reveal that traditional agroforestry was common in the study area. There were no cases of innovative agroforestry other than dwindling remnants from a former trees-with-pasture project. Majority of respondents were willing to adopt innovative agroforestry technologies to improve yields and income. Damage and destruction of plants by pests and animals due to lack of fences emerged as the major challenges to the adoption of agroforestry. Other challenges included seed availability and labour requirements. Possible coping strategies, identified through consulting farmers and other stakeholders, would include local initiatives and support from outside the community. Local and external efforts are required especially to secure inputs and raise awareness, knowledge and skills with respect to specific agroforestry technologies.

Practical Implications: The paper presents pointers on the involvement of women in agroforestry and on the cultural significance of indigenous and exotic fruit trees. It provides practical lessons useful to extension or rural development workers in a localised set-up.

Originality/Value: The case study gives an insight into the problems faced by peasant farmers and the requirements to make agroforestry successful. Practitioners in southern Africa could learn a great deal about issues relating to smallholder farmers from reading this paper.     

The Role of Agricultural Education and Extension in Influencing Best Practice for Managing Mastitis in Dairy Cattle

Purpose: To examine the role of agricultural education and extension in influencing the adoption of best practice with regard to herd-level mastitis management.Design/Methodology/Approach: Somatic cell count (SCC) is an indicator of herd health with regard to mastitis and is negatively related to productivity and profitability. Panel data regression methods are utilised here to quantify the role of agricultural education and extension in reducing cell count and in influencing farmer best practice with regard to herd health. The impact of education and extension on farmer uptake of milk recording is of particular interest. Data utilised is farm-level Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN) data for Ireland over a five-year period (2008–2012).Findings: Farmer uptake of formal agricultural training and liaison with agricultural extension services are shown to significantly improve mastitis herd health. Collectively, education, extension and milk recording results in an overall SCC reduction of 25% for the average herd. Farmers who undertook agricultural training were ten times more likely to monitor milk quality through milk recording compared to those who had not. Additionally, those farmers in contact with an extension service and also participated in a dairy discussion group were seven times more likely to practice milk recording.Practical Implications: The importance of farmer behaviour in the optimum management of herd health has been validated, as has the role of agricultural education and extension in influencing the uptake of best practice by farmers.Originality/Value: To date little research has been conducted using nationally representative herd-level data on the role of agricultural education and extension in improving animal health best practice.     

Research capacity for local innovation: the case of conservation agriculture in Ethiopia,Malawi and Mozambique

Purpose: The limited uptake of improved agricultural practices in Africa raise questions on the functionality of current agricultural research systems. Our purpose is to explore the capacity for local innovation within the research systems of Ethiopia, Malawi and Mozambique.

Design/methodology/approach: Using Conservation Agriculture (CA) as a case study, we qualitatively explore with 26 locally based agricultural researchers the context of CA research and promotion, including their perceptions on persistent research gaps and issues in closing them.

Findings: Respondents identified that CA was not yet a finished product, with concerns regarding the benefit, feasibility and relevance of CA implementation. They asserted that while further adaptation was required, they were unable to do this due to institutional constraints within their research, extension and policy contexts.

Practical implications: We find that CA continues to be considered a donor-driven intervention in its current form and requires substantial further adaptation to local contexts before researchers will deem it ready for farmer uptake. The five research gaps identified by respondents highlight practical areas where further adaptations must occur.

Theoretical implications: Our findings suggest a lack of participatory research and extension most likely reflects limited financial, human and social capital to implement more participatory approaches. Without addressing these capacities, widespread adoption of complex farming systems change appears unlikely.

Originality/Value: Whilst many studies have identified a need for local innovation to enable CA utilisation, few have qualitatively explored directly with local researchers the capacity of such systems to do so. We address this gap in the literature.     

Smallholder Information Sources and Communication Pathways for Cashew Production and Marketing in Tanzania: An Ex-post Study in Tandahimba and Lindi Rural Districts,Southern Tanzania

Abstract

Purpose: To identify and review production and marketing information sources and flows for smallholder cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) growers in Tanzania and recommend systems improvements for better technology uptake.

Design/methodology/approach: Two-stage purposive samples were drawn. First, two districts in the main cashew producing areas, one with significant research investment and good marketing infrastructure and the other a counterfactual. Second, two villages were purposively selected from each district to provide the maximum contrast of variables pertinent to the study. Field data were collected using a semi-structured, open-ended questionnaire complimented by field verification and a wrap-up stakeholders' workshop. The data were analysed using chi-square test and the orderly probit model.

Findings: Sources of information and flows varied between districts and villages. For production, the most reliable sources were role model farmers (RMFs), extensionists, radio, on-farm demonstrations, researchers, cashew development centres (CDCs), print media and mobile phones in order of popularity. RMFs, radio programmes, extensionists, interactions with researchers, CDCs and print were the main pathways. For marketing, primary society notice boards, radio announcements, RMFs, extensionists, mobile phones and print were listed in order of popularity. Print media was the least popular due to a low level of literacy among growers. RMFs were popular actors in the information systems irrespective of social-economic background.

Practical implications: Policy change and additional resources are required for improvement of existing information systems. Additionally, incentive structures that will enhance and sustain continued investment in cashew production should be emphasized.

Originality and value: This is the first attempt in the Tanzanian cashew sector to analyse and link social economics of growers with information sources, communication channels and technology uptake.     

Farmers’ Visions on Soils: A Case Study among Agroecological and Conventional Smallholders in Minas Gerais,Brazil

Abstract

Purpose: Why do farmers not take better care of their soils? This article aims to give insight into how farmers look at soil quality management.

Design/methodology/approach: It analyses diverse land management practices and visions on soils and soil quality of ten agroecological and 14 conventional smallholder farmers in Araponga, Minas Gerais, Brazil. As agroecological farming (that is, managing soils with minimum use of external inputs) requires more complex knowledge, it is assumed that agroecological farmers would be more knowledgeable on soils compared to conventional farmers. This case study tests the hypothesis that differences in land management practices between agroecological and conventional farmers can be explained by differences in their knowledge on soils.

Findings: The hypothesis turned out to be faulty: agroecological and conventional farmers do not differ in what they know about soils, but how they use their knowledge in their farming strategy. Both groups of farmers have different but rational farming strategies.

Practical implications: Designing policies and measures to make farming more environmentally friendly and more sustainable as two-way knowledge exchange between farmers and science (and not as one-way knowledge transfer from science to farmers), to benefit from vital and context-based farmers’ knowledge and to ensure successful implementation of more sustainable land management practices.

Originality/value: By analysing farmers’ visions on soil quality management and farming strategies, this study shows that farmers’ knowledge is valuable for farmers, for scientific knowledge on soil quality management and for policies which are to be effective and adapted to the local environment.     

Connecting Marginal Rice Farmers to Agricultural Knowledge and Information Systems in Vietnam Uplands

Abstract

In Vietnam, agricultural extension has contributed to rural development and poverty alleviation over the past two decades of agricultural decollectivization, but it was not very effective in reducing disparities within farmer communities. The study examined how better interactions of extension services with other agencies and information sources may help marginal farmers in catching up with the general improvement of living conditions in a mountainous area in northern Vietnam. It combined three complementary viewpoints on this issue: that of the agricultural extension staff, that of farmers and that of development experts with a long working experience in the mountains of Vietnam. The analysis of existing structures and functions of the extension system revealed a number of obstacles to the participation of marginal farmers in extension programmes and helped to identify relevant domains of intervention.