Preexposure to situational cues and shock intensity in two-way avoidance learning

Four groups of rats (n = 16) received 65 two-way avoidance learning trials. The groups differed with respect to the amount of exposure (0 or 4 h) to the situational cues of the apparatus prior to avoidance learning and the intensity of shock (.3 or 1.6 mA) during learning. Superior avoidance performance with weak as compared to strong shock was obtained in the nonpreexposed groups. This inverse relationship between avoidance performance and shock intensity, typical of two-way avoidance learning, was eliminated in the preexposed groups. Presumably, a latent inhibition effect occurred in the strong-shock group, which resulted in a retardation of the conditioning of fear to the situational cues and a consequent improvement in performance. The results are consistent with the effective reinforcement theory, which emphasizes in aversive learning the detrimental effect of large amounts of fear remaining following a response.     

Preexposure to situational cues produces a direct relationship between two-way avoidance learning and shock intensity

In Experiment 1, four groups of subjects (n = 16 each) were exposed to the situational stimuli of a shuttlebox apparatus for 4 h. Subsequently, 200 two-way avoidance trials were administered (100/day) with either .3- or 1.6-mA shock and with either small or large reward (presence or absence of visual stimuli following the response). Avoidance performance was directly related to shock intensity on both days and to magnitude of reward on the 2nd day. In Experiment 2, four groups of subjects (n = 24 each) were given 4 h of exposure either to the situational stimuli of the shuttlebox or to a neutral box. Then, 10 two-way avoidance trials were given with 1.6-mA shock. Subsequently, subjects were allowed to escape from one of the shuttlebox compartments to an adjacent safe box. Following preexposure to situational stimuli, avoidance performance was superior whereas escape-from-fear performance was inferior. This latter finding demonstrated that less fear of situational cues was present during avoidance training in the preexposed condition. All of these results support the effective reinforcement theory, an extension of two-factor theory, which emphasizes the importance for avoidance learning of the amount of fear of situational cues present following a response.     

Retrieval of memory in the pigeon by context manipulations

In Experiment 1, 12 pigeons were given eight sessions of VI single stimulus training with a color in a particular context followed by eight sessions of similar training with a line angle in another context. On the next day, half of the subjects were tested for wavelength and angularity generalization in each of the two contexts, a procedure that was thus consistent with training for one dimension and inconsistent for the other. The subjects made significantly more responses to each training stimulus under the consistent context condition, but there was no difference in absolute or relative generalization slopes. In Experiment 2, 12 pigeons were trained as in Experiment 1, but during generalization testing they were exposed to both contexts sequentially. Under the consistent context condition, the subjects responded more to the two training stimuli and yielded sharper absolute and relative wavelength generalization gradients: Under the inconsistent context condition, responding to the training wavelength was substantially disrupted. Thus, under appropriate testing conditions, contextual control over both the amount and the selectivity of responding can be demonstrated.     

Inhibition of delay of the two-way avoidance response and warning-signal salience

Effects of extended training (nine sessions, 50 trials each) on two-way avoidance response latencies were studied. For each rat, auditory and visual warning signals (CS) were presented on separate trials, either according to a Gellermann series or in 25-trial blocks. Intermittent presentation of the two kinds of trials yielded shorter latencies and higher levels of avoidance performance in response to the noise CS than in response to the darkness CS. Presentation of trials in blocks revealed stronger response-eliciting properties of stimuli presented during the second half of the session than of those presented during the first half. A significant decrease of avoidance performance in the early portions of the delay period, an index of inhibition of delay, was obtained on auditory trials presented in the second half of the sessions. Results indicate that strong fear of the warning signal is required for inhibition of delay of avoidance responses.     

Blended teaching and learning: a two-way systems approach

A first-year tertiary-student structural equation modelling approach builds understanding of blended learning. The Biggs' 3P teaching-and-learning-systems model displays significant two-way interactions between each of its presage, process and product constructs. This study validates the Biggs' approach as a dynamic interactive learning system. The student learning processes occur through teacher contributions, mixed with learning interactions and feedback systems. Greater learning, knowledge and skills transfer is possible when students are suitably pre-prepared/pre-skilled for their ensuing learning experiences and for the varieties of teaching/learning interactions that they encounter.     

Matching and oddity conditional discrimination in the goldfish as avoidance responses: Evidence for conceptual avoidance learning

Goldfish, trained in the avoidance shuttlebox with a variant of the linear discrimination procedure, learned to conditionally discriminate between color signals, both for the matching (M) and oddity (O) criterion forms. Transfer to assess the possibility of concept learning was also tested. In original learning, oddity-trained groups learned faster and reached higher conditional discrimination performance levels than did matching-trained groups. In transfer, various groups were tested with the same criterion (MM or OO) or a shifted criterion (MO or OM), and half of each group retained the same color signals and the remaining half had its color signals changed in transfer. Groups with the same criterion in original learning and transfer (MM or OO), regardless of signal colors, showed comparable positive transfer. Groups with their criterion shifted between original learning and transfer (MO or OM) showed comparable negative transfer, regardless of signal colors. Since both positive- and negative-transfer effects were independent of signal colors, it is clear that what was learned for one set of signal colors transferred to at least one other signal-color set. These findings are consistent with the interpretation that goldfish learned the original conditional discrimination at a conceptual level, and learned about the general matching or oddity relationships between colors, rather than about a specific set of colors.     

On the nature of CS and US representations in Pavlovian learning

A significant problem in the study of Pavlovian conditioning is characterizing the nature of the representations of events that enter into learning. This issue has been explored extensively with regard to the question of what features of the unconditioned stimulus enter into learning, but considerably less work has been directed to the question of characterizing the nature of the conditioned stimulus. This article introduces a multilayered connectionist network approach to understanding how “perceptual” or “conceptual” representations of the conditioned stimulus might emerge from conditioning and participate in various learning phenomena. The model is applied to acquired equivalence/distinctiveness of cue effects, as well as a variety of conditional discrimination learning tasks (patterning, biconditional, ambiguous occasion setting, feature discriminations). In addition, studies that have examined what aspects of the unconditioned stimulus enter into learning are also reviewed. Ultimately, it is concluded that adopting a multilayered connectionist network perspective of Pavlovian learning provides us with a richer way in which to view basic learning processes, but a number of key theoretical problems remain to be solved, particularly as they relate to the integration of what we know about the nature of the representations of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.     

Ontogenetic differences in conditioning to context and CS as a function of context saliency and CS-US interval

A series of experiments examined ontogenetically the effects of context saliency and CS-US interval on the learning of CS-US and context-US associations. Although adult rats generally showed an inverse relationship between CS and context learning that depended upon CS-US interval and context saliency, the opposite relationship held for preweanlings. Consistent with many contemporary learning theories, adult rats expressed CS-context competition in learning about the US. Preweanlings, on the other hand, exhibited potentiated responding to either the context or the CS as a result of strong learning about the other element. These results suggest that adult and infant rats process information in a qualitatively different manner.     

Science learning in the context of discourse

The original article by Kamberelis and Wehunt (2012) discusses an interesting and important research subject in science education as it focus on classroom interactions and the characteristics of the discourse production of interlocutors. The authors start from the premise that discourse heterogeneity is constitutive of social activities, which is supported by others like Mikhail Bakhtin (Speech genres and other late essays. University of Texas Press, Austin, 1981) and Erving Goffman (Frame analysis: an essay on the organization of experience. Harper and Row, London, 1974). They also present the definitions of three key elements that organize hybrid discourse: (a) lamination of multiple cultural frames, (b) shifting relations between people and their discourse, and (c) shifting power relations between people. Finally, the authors analyze how these three elements organize students’ science discourse in the classroom and how it contributes to the creation of a micro-community of practice capable of helping the emergence of a disciplinary knowledge that is legitimized by and strengthens the identity of the group. In the present commentary, I discuss how Michael Foucault’s (1970) concept of discursive procedure may help us to analyze the (often neglected) teacher’s role in the development of hybrid discourse practices.     

Improving the quality of student learning: the influence of learning context and student approaches to learning on learning outcomes

Previous studies of the relationship between perceptions and/or evaluations of the learning environment and approaches to study have either not included measures of students' learning outcomes, or have included quantitative differences and not qualitative differences in learning outcomes. The studies reported in this paper focus on the relationship between qualitative differences in learning outcomes, perceptions/evaluations of the learning environment and approaches to study. The results support previous research in identifying relationships between perceptions/evaluations of the learning environment and approach to study and between approach to study and the quality of the learning outcomes. The second of the two studies reported also identifies a relationship between perceptions, approaches and the quality of the outcomes. The results suggest that perceived environments which encourage deep approaches are more likely to facilitate higher quality learning than environments designed to discourage surface approaches.     

Teacher learning in the context of educational innovation: Learning activities and learning outcomes of experienced teachers

This longitudinal study was aimed at increasing our understanding of how teachers learn. It was conducted within a national innovation programme in secondary education. During one year 94 teachers reported six learning experiences using digital logs. The learning experiences were content-analysed in terms of learning activities and learning outcomes. The former comprised six main categories, namely experimenting, considering own practice, getting ideas from others, experiencing friction, struggling not to revert to old ways, and avoiding learning—the first two categories being reported most frequently. Reported learning outcomes referred to changes in knowledge and beliefs, emotions, practices, and intentions for practice, with changes in knowledge and beliefs being reported most frequently and changes in teaching practices being reported rarely. Learning activities were associated significantly with all measures of learning outcomes. Type of learning environment was significantly associated with learning activities and learning outcomes. Results are discussed with respect to ways of fostering teacher learning.     

Epistemic metacognition in context: evaluating and learning online information

This study examined epistemic metacognition as a reflective activity about knowledge and knowing in the context of online information searching on the Web, and whether it was related to prior knowledge on the topic, study approach, and domain-specific beliefs about science. In addition, we investigated whether Internet-based learning was influenced by epistemic metacognition and the individual differences examined. Seventy 8th grade students were interviewed retrospectively after searching for online information about the scientifically controversial topic of dinosaur extinction. Both qualitative and quantitative analyses were performed. Findings showed that participants expressed reflections about the simplicity/complexity, certainty/uncertainty, source, and justification of knowledge at different levels of sophistication, according to three patterns of epistemic metacognition. Prior knowledge was not related to epistemic metacognition in the search context, while study approach and epistemic beliefs about science were associated significantly, although modestly, with aspects of online knowledge evaluation. Moreover, findings revealed that Internet-based learning was influenced by overall science-related epistemic beliefs. Learning from Internet sources was also affected by study approach and epistemic reflections about the justification of online knowledge, as well as by the interaction between beliefs about the justification of scientific knowledge and beliefs about the justification of the knowledge accessed concerning the topic.     

Continuity and intensity of shock in one-way avoidance learning in the rat

Six groups of rats (n = 16) differed with respect to the continuity of shock (continuous or discontinuous) and the shock intensity (.3, .8, or 1.6 mA) used during 65 one-way avoidance-conditioning trials. In general, a facilitative effect on one-way avoidance learning was obtained for continuous as opposed to discontinuous shock and for strong as opposed to weak shock. For both variables, the results are opposite to those obtained in discriminated shuttlebox-avoidance and barpress avoidance tasks. The data support an interpretation of the effect of continuity of shock which holds that discontinuous shock is, in effect, less intense than continuous shock. This interpretation allows the effects of the continuity-of-shock variable to be incorporated within the effective reinforcement theory of avoidance learning which has been proposed to account for shock-intensity effects in various avoidance tasks.     

Third age learning: adapting the idea to a Thailand context of lifelong learning

The concept of the university of the third age (U3A) is well established overseas and a key international focus for emerging global networks of senior citizen (i.e. seniors) lifelong learning. However it is yet to become so in Thailand although it too is in the process of becoming an ageing society. Moreover, this is despite the extent to which community learning centres and related agencies of non-formal as well as formal learning are popular and generally well-established in the local context. This paper investigates the reasons for possible local resistance to the U3A concept. It will do so as a basis for exploring the idea of reframing local efforts to promote seniors lifelong learning in terms of a wider and cross-culturally convergent concept of ‘third age learning’. In this way the paper will further consider some of the interesting, relevant and transferable global implications of the local dilemma regarding the U3A concept in a fast-changing world of increasing uncertainty in work, security, and other aspects of life.     

Informal learning in a formal context: problematizing the concept of social capital in a contemporary Swedish context

Definitions of social capital, advanced by Coleman and Fukuyama, and definitions of lifelong learning and intergenerational learning are discussed and compared, and a synthetic model is presented. This model relies heavily on the practical implementation of strategies for augmenting social capital, such as those applied within the granddad project, an intergenerational learning initiative conducted in schools in the Stockholm County area. It is concluded that intergenerational learning in this theoretical framework provides a foundation for lifelong learning practice in a social capital perspective, even though the definition of social capital used is broad and bears strong resemblance to the Japanese concept of kokoru, advanced by Okamoto (1992).     

Observational learning of discriminative avoidance in hooded rats

To determine the aspects of an observational situation facilitating subsequent acquisition of an observed task, two experimental groups of rats were exposed to a model’s performance of a two-way discriminative shuttlebox avoidance task with a tone as the discriminative stimulus. One experimental group (OND) observed the performance of a naive demonstrator; the other experimental group (OSD) observed a skilled demonstrator. A stimulus control group (SC) was exposed to the tone with no model present; a response control group (RC) observed demonstrator running with no tone present. A naive control group (NC) received no observational experience. All groups were subsequently tested on acquisition of the task. An analysis of variance on avoidance scores and Newman-Keuls tests for differences between means revealed that OND and OSD groups performed significantly more avoidances than the control groups. Exposure to the total tone-running sequence was found to be necessary for observational learning. The results were interpreted in terms of a sensory-sensory conditioning model.

     

Conditioning with taste as the CS in conditioned flavor preference learning

There appear to be unconditioned affective reactions to the four basic tastes: liking for sweet and salt and disliking for sour and bitter. We attempted to modify these reactions by pairing the tastes with calories and with sweeter tastes. Differing sucrose concentrations were ineffective in reversing the preference for salt over citric acid or for saccharin over quinine. We could, however, reverse the preference for salt over citric acid, producing an actual preference for sour over salt, by using sucrose and saccharin as the reinforcers. The initial reactions to tastes could also be modified by reducing the initial difference in affect produced by the tastes through mixing both tastes with sucrose.     

Bridging temporal gaps between CS and US in autoshaping: A test of a local context hypothesis

Recent reports indicate that conditioning to contextual cues importantly modulates the amount of trace conditioning. According to this view, the strength of conditioning to a trace CS should be inversely related to the extent to which other external stimuli already predict US occurrence. An experiment with pigeons in an autoshaping (sign-tracking) preparation examined this proposition. Insertion of a tone in the 12-sec gap between CS and US led to strong CS responding, except for the case in which the tone also overlapped the CS. However, weak CS responding was obtained when the tone filled only the first or last half of the CS-US gap, even though CS and tone did not overlap. These findings are discussed in terms of an explanation of the effects of gap filling based on conditioning to “local” and “general” contextual cues, and in terms of the possible contributions of second-order conditioning.