Paving a clear path in a thick forest: a conceptual analysis of a metacognitive component

The concept of metacognition refers to one’s knowledge and control of one’s own cognitive system. However, despite being widely used, this concept is confusing because of several reasons. First, sometimes it is not at all clear what is cognitive and what is metacognitive. Second, researchers often use the same term, namely, “metacognition” even when they refer to very different aspects of this complex concept. Alternatively, researchers may use different terms to indicate the same metacognitive elements. Another foggy matter is the interrelationships among the various components of metacognition discussed in the literature. This conceptual confusion regarding the concept of metacognition and its sub-components calls for in-depth theoretical and conceptual clarifications. The goal of this article is to portray a detailed example of a conceptual analysis of meta-strategic knowledge (MSK) which is one specific component of metacognition. This specific example is used to draw a general model for conceptual analyses of additional metacognitive components. The approach suggested here is to begin with a clear definition of the target sub component of metacognition, followed by a systematic examination of this sub component according to several dimensions that are relevant to metacognition in general and to that sub component in particular. The examination should include an analysis of how the details of the definition of the target sub-component refer to: (a) general theoretical metacognitive issues raised by prominent scholars; (b) definitions formulated and issues raised by other researchers who have investigated the same (or a similar) sub-component and, (c) empirical findings pertaining to that sub-component. Finally, it should be noted that since metacognition is a relational rather than a definite concept it is important to situate the context within which the conceptual analysis takes place.     

“Here the Scientists Explain What I Said.” Coordination Practices Elicited During the Enactment of the Results and Discussion Sections of Adapted Primary Literature

Adapted primary literature (APL) is a novel text genre that retains the authentic characteristics of primary literature. Learning through APL represents an educational intervention with an authentic scientific context. In this case study, we analyzed the 80-min discourse developed during the enactment of an article from an APL-based curriculum in biotechnology in one class, and examined epistemic practices used by students during their meaning-making of the Results and Discussion sections of the article. Specifically, we examined coordination practices, by which students connected elements belonging to different epistemic status or context (theory, data, experimental stages, biotechnological applications and text). The application of coordination practices was identified more than 70 times during the lesson. In the context of the Results section, the students displayed research-oriented coordination practices, which were frequently associated with claims of comprehension difficulty. In the context of the Discussion section, students displayed text-oriented coordination practices, associated with analysis of the text characteristics. We are suggesting that the research-oriented coordination practices and some of the text-oriented ones enabled the emergence of authentic scientific practices and learning by inquiry. Another type of text-oriented coordination practice enabled reflection on scientists’ experimental processes, enabling learning science as inquiry. The enactment model of APL used here allowed for both the emergence of the two dimensions of inquiry learning and the promotion of scientific literacy in the fundamental and derived senses.     

Supporting Teaching and Learning Using Authentic Scientific Texts: A Rejoinder to Danielle J. Ford

In her commentary Danielle J. Ford mainly focused on three issues that highlight the promises and challenges for the use of Adapted Primary Literature (APL) in science curricula: the possible contribution of APL to authentic experiences in secondary schools, implementation issues of APL including the support required for the teachers, and the possibilities to extend the use of APL to younger and older students. In this rejoinder, we first offer some general comments on Ford’s commentary. Then we offer more specific comments on two areas of her response, authenticity and the support for teachers.     

Learning Using Dynamic and Static Visualizations: Students’ Comprehension, Prior Knowledge and Conceptual Status of a Biotechnological Method

The importance of biotechnology education at the high-school level has been recognized in a number of international curriculum frameworks around the world. One of the most problematic issues in learning biotechnology has been found to be the biotechnological methods involved. Here, we examine the unique contribution of an animation of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in promoting conceptual learning of the biotechnological method among 12th-grade biology majors. All of the students learned about the PCR using still images (n = 83) or the animation (n = 90). A significant advantage to the animation treatment was identified following learning. Students’ prior content knowledge was found to be an important factor for students who learned PCR using still images, serving as an obstacle to learning the PCR method in the case of low prior knowledge. Through analysing students’ discourse, using the framework of the conceptual status analysis, we found that students who learned about PCR using still images faced difficulties in understanding some mechanistic aspects of the method. On the other hand, using the animation gave the students an advantage in understanding those aspects.     

Science Teacher Education in the Twenty-First Century: a Pedagogical Framework for Technology-Integrated Social Constructivism

Changes in our global world have shifted the skill demands from acquisition of structured knowledge to mastery of skills, often referred to as twenty-first century competencies. Given these changes, a sequential explanatory mixed methods study was undertaken to (a) examine predominant instructional methods and technologies used by teacher educators, (b) identify attributes for learning and teaching in the twenty-first century, and (c) develop a pedagogical framework for promoting meaningful usage of advanced technologies. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected via an online survey, personal interviews, and written reflections with science teacher educators and student teachers. Findings indicated that teacher educators do not provide sufficient models for the promotion of reform-based practice via web 2.0 environments, such as Wikis, blogs, social networks, or other cloud technologies. Findings also indicated four attributes for teaching and learning in the twenty-first century: (a) adapting to frequent changes and uncertain situations, (b) collaborating and communicating in decentralized environments, (c) generating data and managing information, and (d) releasing control by encouraging exploration. Guided by social constructivist paradigms and twenty-first century teaching attributes, this study suggests a pedagogical framework for fostering meaningful usage of advanced technologies in science teacher education courses.     

Validating human and automated scoring of essays against “True” scores

ABSTRACT

In the current study, two pools of 250 essays, all written as a response to the same prompt, were rated by two groups of raters (14 or 15 raters per group), thereby providing an approximation to the essay’s true score. An automated essay scoring (AES) system was trained on the datasets and then scored the essays using a cross-validation scheme. By eliminating one, two, or three raters at a time, and by calculating an estimate of the true scores using the remaining raters, an independent criterion against which to judge the validity of the human raters and that of the AES system, as well as the interrater reliability was produced. The results of the study indicated that the automated scores correlate with human scores to the same degree as human raters correlate with each other. However, the findings regarding the validity of the ratings support a claim that the reliability and validity of AES diverge: although the AES scoring is, naturally, more consistent than the human ratings, it is less valid.     

Active learners’ characterization in MOOC forums and their generated knowledge

This study explores and characterizes learners' participation patterns in MOOC forums, as well as the factors that correlate with learners' participation. Educational data mining and learning analytics methods were used to retrieve and analyze the learners' interpersonal interaction data, which had accumulated in the Coursera log files. The content in the forums was categorized based on Henri's criteria and converted into quantitative values that could be compared and visualized. It was found that only 20% of the learners were collaborating in the forums throughout the entire course and were responsible for 50% of the total posts. A portion of them earned the name “Super Active.” The analyses not only demonstrated the volume of activity and its pattern but also revealed the content of the discussions, which helped to highlight the needs and reasons for students' usage of the forums. The content analysis showed intensity in the “Cognitive” and “Discipline” categories. Thus, forum participants benefit from discussions not only socially but disciplinarily and cognitively as well. Furthermore, even though a strong significant correlation was found between the learners’ completion status and their activity in the forums, a group of learners, who did not complete the course, was highly active.     

Separating the research question from the laboratory techniques: Advancing high‐school biology teachers' ability to ask research questions

Inquiry is essentially a process in which research questions are asked and an attempt is made to find the answers. However, the formulation of operational research questions of the sort used in authentic scientific inquiry is not a trivial task. Here, we set out to explore the possible influence of separating the research question from the laboratory techniques used to try and answer this question on teachers' understanding of laboratory techniques and their ability to formulate research questions. We conducted a laboratory course in microbiology in which the laboratory techniques were presented in an explicit and generalized manner, in the context of specific research questions. During the course, teachers' understanding of laboratory techniques improved as reflected in their answers to exercises given throughout. In addition, teachers' ability to ask research questions, analyzed using Dillon's classification of research questions, also improved. When reflecting upon the course, some teachers attributed the change in their ability to ask research questions to their increased knowledge of techniques, whereas others did not. We conclude that to facilitate research‐question‐asking skills among teachers, they should be provided with knowledge of the relevant laboratory techniques in an explicit fashion. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 49: 1296–1320, 2012     

Assessing Teachers’ Pedagogical Knowledge in the Context of Teaching Higher‐order Thinking

This article reports the development and application of two instruments for assessing science teachers’ pedagogical knowledge in the context of teaching higher‐order thinking: a Likert‐type research instrument, and an instrument that analyzes classroom observations. The rationale for developing these instruments and their main categories is described. One hundred and fifty Israeli science teachers replied to the Likert‐type questionnaire. Results show that biology teachers gained a significantly higher score than either physics or chemistry teachers, that junior high school teachers scored significantly higher than high school teachers, and that a significant negative correlation was found between final scores and teaching experience. Participants in the classroom observation study were 14 teachers who attended a one‐year professional development course for teaching higher‐order thinking. The instrument was sensitive in detecting progress in teachers’ pedagogical knowledge in several categories, such as: Frequency of tasks that required higher‐order thinking; The variety of thinking strategies that teachers addressed during their lessons; Engagement of students in metacognitive thinking; and Using the “language of thinking” in class. The implications of the findings for research and practice are described.