Reviews

Sam Pickering teaches English at the University of Connecticut     

Enhancing self-regulation of practice: the influence of graphing and self-evaluative standards

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of graphing of self-recorded outcomes and self-evaluative standards on the acquisition of a motoric skill with 70 college students. It was postulated that students who were provided with graduated self-evaluative standards would surpass those who were provided with absolute standards or no standards (control) in both motoric skill and in motivational beliefs (i.e., self-efficacy, attributions, and self-satisfaction). Regarding graphing of self-recorded outcomes, it was hypothesized that students who graphed their results visually would show higher dart skill and stronger motivational beliefs than participants who did not graph their results. Support was found for these hypotheses. The implications of findings of this study were discussed for instructors in terms of how the effects of self-directed practice can be enhanced.     

Student Perceptions of Chemistry Laboratory Learning Environments, Student–Teacher Interactions and Attitudes in Secondary School Gifted Education Classes in Singapore

This study investigated the chemistry laboratory classroom environment, teacher–student interactions and student attitudes towards chemistry among 497 gifted and non-gifted secondary-school students in Singapore. The data were collected using the 35-item Chemistry Laboratory Environment Inventory (CLEI), the 48-item Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI) and the 30-item Questionnaire on Chemistry-Related Attitudes (QOCRA). Results supported the validity and reliability of the CLEI and QTI for this sample. Stream (gifted versus non-gifted) and gender differences were found in actual and preferred chemistry laboratory classroom environments and teacher–student interactions. Some statistically significant associations of modest magnitude were found between students' attitudes towards chemistry and both the laboratory classroom environment and the interpersonal behaviour of chemistry teachers. Suggestions for improving chemistry laboratory classroom environments and the teacher–student interactions for gifted students are provided.     

Educating sick children: an Irish hospital school in context, 1900–1980

The teaching of sick children in hospital is an often overlooked aspect of Ireland’s national education system. Prior to the 1970s, there was hardly any formal structure in place for this type of schooling in the country, despite the fact that many children could be inpatients for weeks or months at a time. In 1980, a report, published by the Association for the Welfare of Children in Ireland, revealed that although there had been an improvement in the intervening decade, only 6% of hospitals had a dedicated schoolroom. Drawing on previously unresearched papers belonging to Temple Street Children’s Hospital, this article will take a closer look at the socio-political forces that held back the development of the hospital classroom in Ireland for so many decades; it will also explore some of the factors that promoted its development after 1970, thus helping to explain why the education of sick children is so firmly established today.     

The effects of labeling bias on prognostic outlook for children as a function of diagnostic label and profession

Labeling bias refers to expectations that others might have for a person given a particular label. This study investigated the effects of labeling bias on prognostic outlook for children as a function of diagnostic labels and professional group membership. School psychologists, regular and special education teachers, and introductory psychology students read a vignette that described an elementary-school-aged boy with behavior problems. The vignette was held constant for all participants, but one of four labels (conduct disordered, socially maladjusted, serious emotionally disturbed, no exceptionality) was varied at the end of the vignette. Respondents then estimated the child's likelihood of future success in interpersonal relationships, the likelihood of further behavioral difficulties, and overall adjustment of the child. There was a significant effect noted for diagnostic label across all professionals on the interpersonal relations variable; the serious emotionally disturbed label resulted in judgments of significantly poorer outlook than any other diagnostic label except socially maladjusted. There were no other significant labeling bias effects for the other dependent measures, but a main effect for diagnostic label on judgment of overall adjustment did approach significance. There were no significant effects noted for professional group membership. Professionals should consider the use of a label other than SED to minimize labeling bias effects on judgment of interpersonal adjustment in children with behavioral difficulties. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Metacognition as a Basis for Learning Support Software

In order to understand the task of instructional designers who produce learning support software, this paper reviews the influence of learning theory on instructional design, recent developments in computer technology, and the evolving role of the instructor as a facilitator of higher-order thinking. Constructivist principles of learning and an appreciation for the fact that the learner must become more independent and skilled in metacognitive self-assessment and self-management are fundamental to this changing role. Two cognitive tools that provide learner/user support for personal construction of knowledge systems are “MindMap” and “Learning FourMat Processor.” These tools are examined in the light of current learning theory and a recent study comparing the work of novice and expert writers using different forms of performance support. Recommendations are made for the development of a more complete set of cognitive tools that enables users to construct their own multimedia knowledge systems based on higher-order thinking and problem solving.     

Validity of the parenting inventory: Young children

The Parenting Inventory: Young Children (PI) is a rating scale that measures the developmental expectations and behaviors of parents of children who are between the ages of 1 and 4 years, 11 months. Using a representative urban sample of 1,056 mothers, the PI was found to discriminate successfully between parents with children of different ages and to have substantial item-construct correlations (content validity). The PI was not strongly related to the Adult-Adolescent Parenting Inventory, a measure of parenting attitudes (discriminant validity). Reasons for this latter finding are discussed. Potential uses of the PI for practitioners working with parents in the schools are described.     

A simple ratio adjustment for baseline recording in natural settings

The usefulness of a baseline record is often compromised by extraneous events in the natural environment that artificially intervene to prevent the performance of a specific target behavior. To attenuate this problem, a simple ratio adjustment procedure was suggested that compares the observed response frequency with a maximum possible frequency for each observation period. This ratio is then transformed into a response percentage with a more general predictive value for the behavior modification practitioner.