Time to embrace the complexity when analysing GPS data? A systematic review of contextual factors on match running in rugby league

ABSTRACT

This systematic review aimed to identify and summarise associations between currently identified contextual factors and match running in senior male professional rugby league. Eligible articles included at least one contextual factor and used GPS to measure at least one displacement variable within competitive senior, male, professional rugby league matches. Of the 15 included studies, the identified contextual factors were grouped into factors related to individual characteristics (n = 3), match result (n = 4), team strength (n = 2), opposition strength (n = 3), match conditions (n = 6), technical and tactical demands (n = 6), spatial and temporal characteristics (n = 7), and nutrition (n = 1). Speed was the most commonly reported measure of match running (100%), followed by distance (47%), and acceleration (20%). Inconsistencies were found between studies for most contextual factors on match running. Higher speeds were generally associated with higher fitness, encountered earlier in the match and whilst defending. All 15 studies utilised a univariate approach to quantify associations of a contextual factor. The inconsistencies found in the associations of given contextual factors highlight the complex and multi-faceted nature of match running. Therefore, practitioners should consider contextual factors when analysing and interpreting GPS data.     

Over-education: What influence does the workplace have?

The wage and job satisfaction impacts for over-educated workers have been well-documented; yet little attention has been paid to the consequences for firms. In this paper we examine over-education from the perspective of the workplace. Using linked employer–employee data for the United Kingdom, we derive the standard worker-level penalties on wages and job satisfaction. We then show how over-education rates across workplaces adversely influence workplace pay and workplace labor relations. For individual workers who may be at-risk of over-education, we also distinguish between workforce composition effects and workplace labor practices, such as hiring. The effect of over-education on job satisfaction is particularly strong and its effects are evident at the workplace level. Our results suggest that investigations of over-education at the level of the firm are a promising area of inquiry.     

Effect of odor preexposure on acquisition of an odor discrimination in dogs

In two experiments, we investigated the impact of odor preexposure treatments on the acquisition of an olfactory discrimination in dogs. In the first experiment, four groups of dogs were each given five days’ odor-exposure treatment prior to discrimination training. Dogs in the exposure group were exposed to anise extract (S+) for 30 min daily. Dogs in the Pavlovian-relevant pairing group received six daily delayed-conditioning trials to the same S+. The Pavlovian-irrelevant pairing group received conditioning trials to almond extract (S'). Dogs in the control group received no pretreatment. All of the dogs were then trained to detect S+ from a background pine odor (an AX-vs.-X discrimination). The Pavlovian-relevant pairing group acquired the odor discrimination significantly faster than all of the other exposure and control groups, and the remaining groups acquired the discrimination at the same rate as the no-exposure control group. In a second experiment, we extended these results to a within-subjects design using an AX-versus-BX discrimination. Six dogs were simultaneously trained on two different odor discriminations, one discrimination in which the S+ was previously Pavlovian conditioned, and one discrimination in which the S+ was novel. All of the dogs learned the odor discrimination with the previously conditioned S+ faster than they learned the novel odor discrimination, replicating the results of Experiment 1, and demonstrating that familiarity in the form of Pavlovian conditioning enhances odor-discrimination training. The potential mechanisms of the facilitated transfer of a Pavlovian conditioned stimulus to discrimination training are discussed.     

The public returns to public educational investments in African-American males

This paper calculates the public savings (financial benefits) from greater public investments in the education of African-American males. Over one-fifth of each age cohort of black males in US is not a high school graduate. We identify five interventions that would—based on credible research—increase the graduation rate; we also report the public cost of each intervention. We then calculate the lifetime public benefits in terms of increased tax revenues and lower spending on health and crime. In present values, for a black male aged 20, these public benefits amount to $256,700 per new graduate and the median intervention would cost only $90,700. The benefit/cost ratio is 2.83. Simply equating the high school graduation rate of black males with that of white males would yield public savings of $3.98 billion for each age cohort. These results suggest that increased investments in education for black males at risk of dropping out of high school should be an economic priority.