Three-dimensional kinematics of the lower limbs during forward ice hockey skating

The objectives of the study were to describe lower limb kinematics in three dimensions during the forward skating stride in hockey players and to contrast skating techniques between low- and high-calibre skaters. Participant motions were recorded with four synchronized digital video cameras while wearing reflective marker triads on the thighs, shanks, and skates. Participants skated on a specialized treadmill with a polyethylene slat bed at a self-selected speed for 1 min. Each participant completed three 1-min skating trials separated by 5 min of rest. Joint and limb segment angles were calculated within the local (anatomical) and global reference planes. Similar gross movement patterns and stride rates were observed; however, high-calibre participants showed a greater range and rate of joint motion in both the sagittal and frontal planes, contributing to greater stride length for high-calibre players. Furthermore, consequent postural differences led to greater lateral excursion during the power stroke in high-calibre skaters. In conclusion, specific kinematic differences in both joint and limb segment angle movement patterns were observed between low- and high-calibre skaters.     

The Impact of Modularity and Credit Accumulation on Undergraduate Art and Design Education

Credit Accumulation and modular structures now account for the majority of undergraduate provision in art and design in the UK. This shift away from traditional structures has gained momentum during the past three years and is part of a national move towards credit accumulation and modularity from GCSE through to Masters level work in all subjects. The origins and rationale for these structures are outlined and their advantages are discussed with particular reference to art and design in Higher Education, together with their implications for teaching methods, for student learning, and for assessment. These points are illustrated with examples of new developments in the sector. The author responds to some of the reservations voiced by critics of CATS and Modularity and argues that these structures are more appropriate to the needs and ambitions of students in the 1990s.     

ESTIMATING THE RELIABILITY OF MULTIPLE TRUE-FALSE TESTS

This study was designed to examine the level of dependence within multiple true-false (MTF) test item clusters by computing sets of item intercorrelations with data from a test composed of both MTF and multiple choice (MC) items. It was posited that internal analysis reliability estimates for MTF tests would be spurious due to elevated MTF within-cluster intercorrelations. Results showed that, on the average, MTF within-cluster dependence was no greater than that found between MTF items from different clusters, between MC items, or between MC and MTF items. But item for item, there was greater dependence between items within the same cluster than between items of different clusters.     

OPTIMAL NUMBER OF OPTIONS: AN INVESTIGATION OF THE ASSUMPTION OF PROPORTIONALITY

One assumption common to all models for determining the optimal number of options per item (e. g., Lord, 1977) is that total testing time is proportional to the number of items and the number of options per item. Therefore, under this assumption given a fixed testing time, the test can be shortened or lengthened by deleting or adding a proportional number of options. The present study examines the validity of this assumption in three tests which were administered with 2, 3, 4, and 5 options per item. The number of items attempted in the first 10 and 15 minutes of the testing session and the time needed to complete the tests were recorded. Thus, the rate of performance for both fixed time and fixed test length was analyzed. A strong and consistently negative relationship between rate of performance and the number of options was detected in all tests. Thus, the empirical results did not support the assumption of proportionality. Furthermore, the data indicated that the method by which options are deleted can play a role in this context. A more realistic assumption of generalized proportionality, proposed by Grier (1976), was supported by the results from a Mathematical Reasoning test, but was only partially supported for a Vocabulary and a Reading Comprehension test.     

FURTHER RESULTS ON THE STANDARD ERRORS OF ESTIMATE ASSOCIATED WITH ITEM-EXAMINEE SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Defining one observation as the score received by one examinee on one item, the results of this investigation suggest that, for a given test length, item-examinee sampling procedures having the same number of observation have, for all practical purposes, the same standard error in estimating μ but different standard errors in estimating σ. Additionally, the variance of the item difficulty indices (proportion answering the item correctly) was found to be a significant factor in accounting for differences in standard errors of estimating μ between normative distributions differing primarily in degree of skewness.     

A NOTE ON ALLOCATING ITEMS TO SUBTESTS IN MULTIPLE MATRIX SAMPLING AND APPROXIMATING STANDARD ERRORS OF ESTIMATE WITH THE JACKKNIFE

Investigated empirically through post mortem item-examinee sampling were the relative merits of two alternative procedures for allocating items to subtests in multiple matrix sampling and the feasibility of using the jackknife in approximating standard errors of estimate. The results indicate clearly that a partially balanced incomplete block design is preferable to random sampling in allocating items to subtests. The jackknife was found to better approximate standard errors of estimate in the latter item allocation procedure than in the former.