Reasoning about beliefs: a human specialization?

A recent meta-analysis performed by Wellman, Cross, and Watson clears the air surrounding young children's performance on tests of false belief by showing that it is highly likely that there is some type of conceptual development between 3 and 5 years of age that supports improved task performance. The data concerning the evolutionary origin of these abilities, however, is considerably less clear. Nonetheless, there is some reason to suspect that theory of mind is unique to our species, and that its original function was to provide a more abstract level of describing ancient behavioral patterns (such as deception, reconciliation, and gaze following)-behaviors that humans share in common with many other species. Thus, the initial selective advantage of theory of mind may have been because it increased the flexibility of already-existing behaviors, not because it generated scores of radically new ones.     

Study to assess the compensation and skills of medical library professionals relative to information technology professionals

PURPOSE: The study seeks to determine how medical library professionals performing information-technology (IT) roles are compensated and how their positions are designed compared to information technology staff in their institutions. METHODS: 550 medical library directors in hospital and academic medical libraries were surveyed. The data was then compared to survey data from other compensation studies of the IT industry. RESULTS: There is a gap in compensation between medical library professionals and IT professionals performing similar functions using information technology. Technology-intense library jobs are compensated at higher levels than more traditional jobs. CONCLUSIONS: To compete with IT salaries, managers of medical library professionals will need to be ever more cognizant of the employment practices of IT professionals in nonmedical library disciplines. It is typically in the medical library's best interest to ensure that IT-related jobs, accountabilities, and capabilities of the medical library are known and understood by others, especially in the human resources and information technology staff departments.     

Evidence-based practice: extending the search to find material for the systematic review

BACKGROUND: Cochrane-style systematic reviews increasingly require the participation of librarians. Guidelines on the appropriate search strategy to use for systematic reviews have been proposed. However, research evidence supporting these recommendations is limited. OBJECTIVE: This study investigates the effectiveness of various systematic search methods used to uncover randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for systematic reviews. Effectiveness is defined as the proportion of relevant material uncovered for the systematic review using extended systematic review search methods. The following extended systematic search methods are evaluated: searching subject-specific or specialized databases (including trial registries), hand searching, scanning reference lists, and communicating personally. METHODS: Two systematic review projects were prospectively monitored regarding the method used to identify items as well as the type of items retrieved. The proportion of RCTs identified by each systematic search method was calculated. RESULTS: The extended systematic search methods uncovered 29.2% of all items retrieved for the systematic reviews. The search of specialized databases was the most effective method, followed by scanning of reference lists, communicating personally, and hand searching. Although the number of items identified through hand searching was small, these unique items would otherwise have been missed. CONCLUSIONS: Extended systematic search methods are effective tools for uncovering material for the systematic review. The quality of the items uncovered has yet to be assessed and will be key in evaluating the value of the systematic search methods.     

Statistical methods for analysing discrete and categorical data recorded in performance analysis

In this paper, we identify appropriate statistical methods for analysing categorical differences in discrete variables or 'performance indicators' resulting from performance analysis. The random mechanisms associated with discrete events do not follow a normal distribution; that is, the normal distribution is a continuous not a discrete probability distribution. We propose appropriate statistical methods based on two key discrete probability distributions, the Poisson and binomial distributions. Two approaches are proposed and compared using examples from notational analysis. The first approach is based on the classic chi-square test of significance (both the goodness-of-fit test and the test of independence). The second approach adopts a more contemporary method based on log-linear and logit models fitted using the statistical software GLIM. Provided relatively simple one-way and two-way comparisons in categorical data are required, both of these approaches result in very similar conclusions. However, as soon as more complex models or higher-order comparisons are required, the approach based on log-linear and logit models is shown to be more effective. Indeed, when investigating those factors and categorical differences associated with binomial or binary response variables, such as the proportion of winners when attempting decisive shots in squash or the proportion of goals scored from all shots in association football, logit models become the only realistic method available. By applying log-linear and logit models to discrete events resulting from notational analysis, greater insight into the underlying mechanisms associated with sport performance can be achieved.     

Bilateral arm power imbalance in swim bench exercise to exhaustion

We examined the supposition that swimmers may exhibit an imbalance in bilateral arm power output during simulated swimming exercise. Ten competitive front crawl swimmers (5 males, 5 females; age 20.5+/-2.3 years; height 1.74+/-0.09 m; body mass 72.0+/-16.7 kg; 400 m freestyle swim time 278+/-20.5 s; mean +/- s) performed four incremental (10 W x min(-1)) swim ramp tests on a computer-interfaced biokinetic swim bench ergometer. External power output from each arm was measured continuously to exhaustion. The results showed that, throughout the course of the simulated swim, external power output clearly favoured the left arm (F1,9 = 12.5, P= 0.006). This was especially evident in the final 30 s to exhaustion, when 54.0+/-3.87% of external power output was derived from the left arm versus 46.0+/-3.87% from the right arm. The disparity in external power output was further highlighted when the participants were grouped into unilateral and bilateral breathers. Unilateral breathers (n = 5) produced 57.1+/-2.62% of external power output from the left armversus 42.9+/-2.62% from the right arm (P= 0.001). Bilateral breathers (n = 5) exhibited a more balanced external power output of 51.0+/-1.82% from the left arm and 49.0+/-1.82% from the right arm (P = 0.177). Evidence of power imbalance in the simulated swimming stroke may have important implications for optimizing swim performance. The observed power imbalance may be reduced when a bilateral breathing technique is adopted.     

Estimation of thigh muscle and adipose tissue volume using magnetic resonance imaging and anthropometry

Thigh muscle volume is a useful determinant of functional fitness. However, anthropometric prediction of muscle content is influenced by the variability of adipose tissue accumulation. The aims of this study were to predict thigh muscle and adipose tissue volumes from anthropometry and to assess the validity of the method by examining the various components of the measurements and the assumptions involved. The 19 participants (9 men, 10 women; age 23-49 years) varied in adiposity. They all underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the upper leg and the eight men and two women with the lowest adiposity underwent detailed anthropometry involving girths and skinfolds. Using MRI as the reference method, muscle volume was predictedfrom anthropometry using a circular concentric model, and the assumptions inherent in the method were tested further using the MRI data alone. Muscle volume was best predicted by anthropometry in the 10 leanest participants using a five-slice truncated cone model that overestimated the mean MRI value by 30% (R2 = 0.95; standard error of estimate = 288 cm3; P < 0.001). A single skinfold plus girth measurement at the mid-thigh almost matched its predictive ability, but with an increased bias. Measurements of leg circumference by means of the two techniques agreed well. The assumption of a circular cross-section was valid. In contrast, the agreement between skinfold thickness measured by caliper and superficial adipose tissue thickness by MRI was poor, contributing to the scatter of fat and lean area comparisons. An anterior skinfold thickness measurement underestimated the area of superficial adipose tissue at that level, particularly at the most proximal and distal sites. Although these limitations increase the uncertainties of muscle volume determination by anthropometry, they do not prevent its valid prediction in leaner individuals. The prediction of superficial adipose tissue was poorer.     

Prediction of maximum oxygen consumption from walking, jogging, or running

The purpose of this study was to develop a submaximal, 1.5-mile endurance test for college-aged students using walking, jogging, or running exercise. College students (N = 101: 52 men, 47 women), ages 18-26years, successfully completed the 1.5-mile test twice, and a maximal graded exercise test. Participants were instructed to achieve a "somewhat hard" exercise intensity (rating of perceived exertion = 13) and maintain a steady pace throughout each 1.5-mile test. Multiple linear regression generated the following prediction equation: VO2 max = 65.404 + 7.707 x gender (1 = male; 0 =female) - 0.159 x body mass (kg) - 0.843 x elapsed exercise time (min; walking, jogging orrunning). This equation shows acceptable validity (R = .86, SEE = 3.37 ml x kg(-1) min(-1)) similar to the accuracy of comparable field tests, and reliability (ICC = .93) is also comparable to similar models. The statistical shrinkage is minimal (R(press) = 0.85, SEE(press) = 3.51 ml x kg(-) x min(-1)); hence, it should provide comparable results when applied to other similar samples. A regression model (R =.90, and SEE = 2.87 ml x kg(-1) min(-1)) including exercise heart rate was also developed: VO2 max = 100.162 +/- 7.301 x gender(1 = male; 0 =female) - 0.164 x body mass (kg) - 1.273 x elapsed exercise time -0.156 x exercise heart rate, for those who have access to electronic heart rate monitors. This submaximal 1.5-mile test accurately predicts maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) without measuring heart rate and is similar to the 1.5-mile run in that it allowsfor mass testing and requires only a flat, measured distance and a stopwatch. Further, it can accommodate a wide range of fitness levels (from walkers to runners).     

On the acoustic signature of golf ball impact

In this paper, we present results on the measurement and analysis of the sound that is produced by the sharp impact loading of a golf ball by a flat massive object (e.g. the face of a golf club). We discuss: (a) the motivation for such a study; (b) some necessary background information on how golf balls vibrate; (c) the techniques used to acquire and analyse the data; and (d) an analysis of the sound made by dropping balls on a smooth, massive concrete target surface. These results establish a simple method for rapid and non-destructive measurement of the effective high-frequency elastic shear moduli of balls and ball cores.