Fear potentiation of the acoustic startle reflex using noises of various spectral frequencies as conditioned stimuli

The effectiveness of noise of various intensities and frequencies in modulating the amplitude of the acoustic startle reflex was evaluated, as a preliminary test of the capacity of these noises to produce consistent and reliable fear-potentiated startle in rats. It was determined that bands of noise containing high frequencies (greater than 10 kHz) tend to unconditionally reduce acoustic startle responses, probably by masking the high-frequency startle-eliciting stimulus. Noise containing high frequencies produced reliable fear-potentiated startle only when its estimated unconditioned startle suppression was subtracted from the enhancement obtained after pairing it with footshocks. Noises devoid of high frequencies produced modest-unconditioned startle enhancements and the most robust and reliable fear-potentiated startle when they were paired with footshocks. A nonmonotonic relationship between training shock intensity and the level of fear-potentiated startle was also exhibited when a low-frequency noise was used as a conditioned stimulus, a finding consistent with previous studies in which a visual stimulus was used. Finally, a differential Pavlovian conditioning procedure indicated that rats could readily discriminate between two different low-frequency bands of noise. The outcome of these experiments indicates that it is easier to employ low-frequency bands of noise to obtain auditory fear-potentiated startle with high-frequency startle-eliciting stimuli.     

Deaf college students' comprehension of relational language in arithmetic compare problems

In this study of deaf college students' performance solving compare word problems, relational statements were either consistent or inconsistent with the arithmetic operation required for the solutions. The results support the consistency hypothesis Lewis and Mayer (1987) proposed based on research with hearing students. That is, deaf students were more likely to miscomprehend a relational statement and commit a reversal error when the required arithmetic operation was inconsistent with the statement's relational term (e.g., having to add when the relational term was less than). Also, the reversal error effect with inconsistent word problems was magnified when the relational statement was a marked term (e.g., a negative adjective such as less than) rather than an unmarked term (e.g., a positive adjective such as more than). Reading ability levels of deaf students influenced their performance in a number of ways. As predicted, there was a decrease in goal-monitoring errors, multiple errors, and the number of problems left blank as the reading levels of students increased. Contrary to expectations, higher reading skills did not affect the frequency of reversal errors.     

Better beware: comparing metacognition for phishing and legitimate emails

Metacognition and Learning - Every electronic message poses some threat of being a phishing attack. If recipients underestimate that threat, they expose themselves, and those connected to them, to...     

Secondary school educational practitioners’ experiences of school attendance problems and interventions to address them: a qualitative study

School attendance problems are associated with a range of adverse consequences, and educational practitioners play a role in identifying and responding to attendance problems. This qualitative study explored educational practitioners’ experiences of working with students with attendance problems and interventions to address them. Focus groups were conducted with sixteen practitioners across three secondary schools. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. Attendance problems were considered resource-intensive and emotionally challenging. Practitioners expressed difficulty understanding causes, although individual/family factors were emphasised over school factors. A range of interventions were described, including adaptations to school context and providing emotional support. Views on punitive approaches were mixed. Individualised interventions implemented at the first sign of problems, and a team approach, were considered important. Findings highlight the important role of educational practitioners in identifying attendance problems and implementing interventions. Recommendations include early intervention, team-work, and emotional support for students with, and staff responding to, attendance problems.     

Fear-potentiated startle using three conditioned stimulus modalities

The capacities of three different conditioned stimulus modalities (light, noise, and airflow produced by a fan) to produce fear-potentiated startle were evaluated. Previous experiments have shown that following either light-shock or noise-shock pairings, both the light and noise conditioned stimuli acquire the ability to potentiate the acoustically elicited startle response in rats (the so-calledfear-potentiated startle effect). In Experiment 1, the ability of airflow produced by a fan to act as a conditioned stimulus was investigated. Rats were given either paired or impaired fan-shock training followed by a test for fear-potentiated startle. The fan conditioned stimulus potentiated startle only in the group given explicit fan-shock pairings. In Experiment 2, we evaluated the discriminability of the three conditioned stimulus modalities. Rats were given light, noise, or fan-shock pairings and were subsequently tested for fear-potentiated startle with the trained conditioned stimulus as well as the two remaining novel conditioned stimuli. Only the trained conditioned stimulus potentiated startle. These results show that fear-potentiated startle can be produced with three discriminable conditioned stimulus modalities, allowing the future use of fear-potentiated startle in the investigation of higher order conditioning phenomena.     

The acquisition of a running response as a function of odor buildup,squad rotation,and introduction of naive subjects

A three-phase experiment was conducted in which rats received a double-alternation schedule of reward and nonreward. During Phase 1, the baseline period, double-alternation behavior was displayed earlier and more strongly by subjects run last in the daily sequence. This finding suggests that both reward and nonreward odor cues are cumulative over subjects. During Phase 2, a subject-rotation procedure was initiated; that is, each day the last subject in the previous day’s running sequence was moved to the first position in the sequence, etc. Rotation to the first position in the group led to an immediate disruption of responding. During Phase 3, two naive rats were inserted at the beginning of the running sequence and two at the end. The results, which showed that the naive animals placed at the end of the sequence acquired the patterning response much faster than those placed in the beginning positions, are interpreted as reflecting preparedness to respond to such intensified odors.     

Reactive attachment disorder: Implications for school readiness and school functioning

School readiness and functioning in children diagnosed with Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD) are important issues due to the dramatic impact RAD has on multiple areas of development. The negative impact of impaired or disrupted early relationships, characterized by extreme neglect, abuse, parental mental illness, domestic violence, and repeated changes in caregivers is examined. A key component of social and emotional development is self‐regulation, which is a critical variable in school readiness and is often impaired in children with RAD. Highlighted topics include the academic and school areas which may exacerbate attachment disturbances as well as ways in which teachers and other school professionals can encourage the development of more productive relationships. Interventions are provided which lead to greater success in school for these children. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 43: 471–479, 2006.