Computer systems: Moral entities but not moral agents

After discussing the distinction between artifacts and natural entities, and the distinction between artifacts and technology, the conditions of the traditional account of moral agency are identified. While computer system behavior meets four of the five conditions, it does not and cannot meet a key condition. Computer systems do not have mental states, and even if they could be construed as having mental states, they do not have intendings to act, which arise from an agent’s freedom. On the other hand, computer systems have intentionality, and because of this, they should not be dismissed from the realm of morality in the same way that natural objects are dismissed. Natural objects behave from necessity; computer systems and other artifacts behave from necessity after they are created and deployed, but, unlike natural objects, they are intentionally created and deployed. Failure to recognize the intentionality of computer systems and their connection to human intentionality and action hides the moral character of computer systems. Computer systems are components in human moral action. When humans act with artifacts, their actions are constituted by the intentionality and efficacy of the artifact which, in turn, has been constituted by the intentionality and efficacy of the artifact designer. All three components – artifact designer, artifact, and artifact user – are at work when there is an action and all three should be the focus of moral evaluation.     

Responding to the Developmental Needs of Student Athletes

The challenges facing student athletes are substantial. The student athlete population faces developmental tasks similar to their nonathlete peers, as well as confronting unique issues. Student athletes' developmental needs are considered within the framework of the psychosocial developmental model proposed by Chickering (1969; Chickering & Reisser, 1993) with special attention to the additional challenges that may make the struggle to resolve the “normal” developmental tasks more difficult. Suggestions for counseling interventions guided by the framework are provided.     

An Initiator-Catalyst Approach to College Counseling Outreach

The authors discuss the evolution of approaches to college counseling outreach, and suggest that an initiator-catalyst approach makes the most sense in contemporary college counseling and mental health settings. A brief history of outreach models and approaches is presented along with an outline of and example of the initiator-catalyst approach. Topics related to this approach are also discussed: mass communications/technology, assessment, faculty, student, and staff change agents; and campus politics.     

Instructional practices of teachers enrolled in educational technology and general education programs

This study investigated classroom practices of 38 teachers enrolled in university masters' degree programs in educational technology and in other areas of education. The classroom practices related to five key concepts associated with educational technology: (a) learner-centered instruction, (b) instructional design, (c) media and technology, (d) assessment, and (e) instructional alignment. Teachers rated their frequency of use of desirable practices in these five areas on a 30-item Likert type survey. In addition, one class of students per teacher rated its own teacher's frequency of use of the practices on 20 items parallel to items on the teacher survey. The mean overall rating across all teachers for the classroom practice items was very close to Often, or 4.0, on the 5-point scale. There were few reported differences between the teachers enrolled in educational technology programs and those enrolled in other education programs. Student ratings indicated less frequent teacher use of the desirable practices on 16 of the 20 common items, with significantly lower student ratings on 8 of these items. However, there was strong teacher-student agreement on several other comparisons.The study reported in this article was conducted as a doctoral dissertation at Arizona State University.     

The American College Counseling Association: A Historical View

The history of college counseling reflects its multifaceted, dynamic character. Numerous works track the historical development of counseling in higher education (Bragdon, 1929; Farnsworth, 1957; Fitzpatrick, 1968; Heppner& Neal, 1983; Siegel, 1968; Williamson, 1939). Contemporary authors also have analyzed current trends and issues facing the college counseling profession (Dean & Meadows, 1995; Steenbarger, 1990; Stone & Archer, 1990). The American College Counseling Association (ACCA) was created and has developed in the context of both history and recent issues in counseling within higher education settings. This article examines factors contributing to the birth and rapid growth of this successful and growing professional association.     

Learning Mathematics for Teaching: From a Teachers' Seminar to the Classroom

A successful practice grounded in the principles that guide the current mathematics education reform effort requires a qualitatively different and significantly richer understanding of mathematics than most teachers currently possess. However, it is not as clear how teachers' mathematical understandings develop and how those understandings affect instruction. This paper explores two avenues for K-6 teachers' mathematical development, (a) engagement in inquiry into mathematics itself, and (b) investigation of children's mathematical thinking, illustrating how the need for these two kinds of investigations arises in classroom situations and how they can be pursued in a professional development setting.