Administration Et Controle De L'Education En Chine

Résumé Avec plus de deux cents millions d'inscrits dans le primaire, le secondaire et le supérieur, la Chine peut se vanter de posséder la population scolaire la plus importante du monde. Celui-ci requiert la participation de quelque huit millions d'enseignants desservant plusieurs milliers d'établissements. Une personne sur quatre au moins étudie à temps plein dans ce pays où la moyenne d'âge de la population est légèrement inférieure à 25 ans. Le Ministère de l'Education à Pékin n'emploie guère plus de deux cents cadres administratifs et pédagogues. Ce modeste groupe constitue le coeur du système. Toutefois, il y a en outre de par la Chine environ un million de travailleurs qui, d'une manière ou d'une autre, desservent et entretiennent le système à l'échelon provincial, communal et cantonal, ainsi qu'à celui du quartier ou de chaque école. Peu d'autres organes étatiques chinois utilisent un corps aussi diversifié de travailleurs spécialisés engagés dans une entreprise de si grande envergure. Dans ce système, les unités scolaires sont censées être leur propre moteur et tirer leur orientation de leur propre sein. Les deux millions d'écoles primaires et secondaires du premier cycle, ainsi que les quatre cents universités et collèges universitaires qui forment l'ensemble du système sont dirigés par des Comités Révolutionnaires représentant l'éventail complet des principales composantes de la société chinoise d'aujourd'hui: ouvriers, paysans et soldats, enseignants, étudiants et parents d'élèves. Cette mesure de décentralisation des pouvoirs administratifs se révèle comme l'un des majeurs bénéfices apportés par la Révolution Culturelle dans le domaine de l'éducation. Présence universelle, le Parti communiste chinois donne les directives politiques et les orientations idéologiques pour l'administration de ce système.

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China, with over two hundred million students enrolled in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions, boasts the world's largest educational system. It involves some eight million teachers, who serve a myriad of schools and colleges. At least one person in every four is a full-time student in a country which has a median population of just under 25 years of age. The Ministry of Education in Peking is modestly staffed by some two hundred administrative cadres and educational workers, who form the heart of the system. However, throughout China there are approximately a further million workers who, in a variety of ways, service and maintain the system at the province, commune, district, county and individual school level. Few other governmental services in China include such a diverse corps of professional workers involved in such a widespread enterprise. Individual school units in the system are expected to generate much of their imputs and direction from within. The two million primary and middle schools and the four hundred universities and colleges which make up the system are run by Revolutionary Committees representing all the principal elements involved in Chinese society today, namely workers, peasants and soldiers, as well as teachers, students and parents. The measure of decentralization of policy making and administrative responsibility has turned out to be one of the main educational benefits of the Cultural Revolution. Ubiquitously, the Chinese Communist Party provides the ideological underpinning and political direction for the administration of the system.

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Zusammenfassung China, mit über zweihundert Millionen Studenten in den Primar-, Sekundar- und Tertiärinstitutionen, kann sich des grössten Bildungssystems der Welt rühmen. Etwa elf Millionen Lehrer sind daran beteiligt, die in einer Myriade von Schulen und Colleges unterrichten. Mindestens jeder vierte ist in Ausbildung in einem Lande, wo der mittlere Alterdurchschnitt gerade unter 25 Jahren liegt. Das Erziehungsministerium in Peking ist personell bescheiden ausgerüstet mit etwa zweihundert Verwaltungskadern und pädagogischen Arbeitern, die das Herz des Systems bilden. Doch in ganz China selbst gibt es noch einmal etwa eine Million weiterer Arbeiter, die, in verschiedener Art und Weise, das System auf dem Provinz-, Kommunen-, Distrikt-, Bezirks- und Schulniveau bedienen und aufrechterhalten. Nur einige wenige Regierungsdienste in China beinhalten solch ein verschiedenartiges Korps an professionellen Arbeitern, die in einem so weitverbreiteten Unternehmen tätig sind. Von individuellen Schuleinheiten im System wird erwartet, dass sie viel von ihrem Einfluss und ihrer Richtung aus sich selbst erzeugen. Die zwei Millionen Primar- und Mittelschulen und die vierhundert Universitäten und Colleges, aus denen das System besteht, werden von Revolutionskommittees geleitet, die die Hauptgruppen der heutigen chinesischen Gesellschaft widerspiegeln, nämlich Arbeiter, Bauern und Soldaten, sowie Lehrer, Studenten, Schüler und Eltern. Dezentralisierung der politischen Entscheidung und der Verwaltungsverantwortung stellt sich als einer der Hauptvorteile der Kulturrevolution heraus. Überall stellt die chinesische kommunistische Partei die ideologische Basis und die politischen Direktiven zur Verwaltung des Systems auf.

     

Images in mirrors: Recollections,alternative explanations and modes of cognitive functioning

Students' conceptions of how objects are seen directly, and in mirrors, were explored in an analysis of their written and drawn responses to common visual phenomena depicted in cartoons with brief text. Students in Grades K-10 (n=214) completed a questionnaire and some were interviewed. Evidence was sought to support an hypothesis for increasingly sophisticated responses related to the concepts of sight, light, reflection and image. The developmental model used in this analysis was the updated SOLO Taxonomy (Biggs & Collis, 1991; Collis & Biggs 1991). It appears from the results that different modes of functioning can interfere to produce factually incorrect recollections of experience particularly in the age group 7 to 13 years approximately. Also, this is associated with the common spurious conception that mirrors have a lateral inversion property. Explanations involving light were extremely rare and its role related to the production of an image ‘in the mirror’ but not to the perception of an image in the eyes. Specializations: science education, students' understandings of phenomena in science. Specializations: cognitive development, evaluation, mathematics and science education. Specializations: mathematics education, students' understanding of chance and data concepts.     

Was Hochschuldozierende aus Lehrevaluations-Rückmeldungen lernen k?nnen

The extent to which students profit from a university course depends on the lecturers?? approach to teaching, with a student-focused approach being more supportive for student gains in competences than a teacher-focused approach. Little is known, however, about how to foster a student-focused approach to teaching. In this paper, we want to investigate how to frame the feedback lecturers obtain from students?? course evaluations in such a manner that a student-focused approach to teaching is encouraged. In two studies using either a qualitative or a quantitative methodology it can be shown that providing lecturers with a feedback on students?? subjective gain in competences (output-focused teaching evaluation) is more effective in promoting a student-focused approach to teaching than a feedback on how satisfied students were with the lecturer (process-focused teaching evaluation). Results are discussed in the context of the Bologna reforms which demand a continuous evaluation of all university courses.     

An Online Questionnaire for Evaluating Students' and Teachers' Perceptions of Constructivist Multimedia Learning Environments

The purpose of this article is to describe the development, validation and use of the Constructivist Multimedia Learning Environment Survey (CMLES). This questionnaire assesses teachers' and students' perceptions of the learning environment when students use online multimedia programs while teachers use constructivism as a referent for their teaching. The design of the questionnaire was based on a constructivist approach to learning and focused on the process of learning with the multimedia program and on the nature of that program. Before the use of the CMLES becomes widespread, it was important to determine whether it is valid and reliable. Therefore, a study involving 221 students in 12 high school classrooms into statistical validation and interpretive validation of the questionnaire was undertaken. For this sample of Grade 10 and 11 students who completed the actual and preferred forms of the questionnaire, the CMLES scales demonstrated a high degree of internal consistency reliability (with alpha reliability coefficients ranging from .73 to .82), as well as satisfactory factorial validity and discriminant validity. Therefore, the study supports the reliability and validity of the CMLES for assessing students' and teachers' perceptions of one important aspect in evaluating learning environments which promote the use of multimedia programs and constructivist learning approaches.     

Using generalizability analysis to estimate parameters for anatomy assessments: A multi‐institutional study

With integrated curricula and multidisciplinary assessments becoming more prevalent in medical education, there is a continued need for educational research to explore the advantages, consequences, and challenges of integration practices. This retrospective analysis investigated the number of items needed to reliably assess anatomical knowledge in the context of gross anatomy and histology. A generalizability analysis was conducted on gross anatomy and histology written and practical examination items that were administered in a discipline‐based format at Indiana University School of Medicine and in an integrated fashion at the University of Alabama School of Medicine and Rush University Medical College. Examination items were analyzed using a partially nested design in which items were nested within occasions (i:o) and crossed with students (s). A reliability standard of 0.80 was used to determine the minimum number of items needed across examinations (occasions) to make reliable and informed decisions about students' competence in anatomical knowledge. Decision study plots are presented to demonstrate how the number of items per examination influences the reliability of each administered assessment. Using the example of a curriculum that assesses gross anatomy knowledge over five summative written and practical examinations, the results of the decision study estimated that 30 and 25 items would be needed on each written and practical examination to reach a reliability of 0.80, respectively. This study is particularly relevant to educators who may question whether the amount of anatomy content assessed in multidisciplinary evaluations is sufficient for making judgments about the anatomical aptitude of students. Anat Sci Educ 10: 109–119. © 2016 American Association of Anatomists.     

Effects of classroom environment on science attitudes: A cross‐cultural replication in Indonesia‡

A three‐phase study, with a different sample for each phase, involved a total of 1125 secondary school students in Indonesia. The first phase involving 373 grade 8 and 9 students was used to develop and validate an Indonesian classroom environment instrument with eight scales based on the Individualized Classroom Environment Questionnaire and the Classroom Environment Scale. In the second phase of the study, 502 Indonesian science students in grades 11 and 12 were involved in a translation, adaptation and validation of a four‐scale Indonesian version of the Test of Science‐Related Attitudes. In the third phase, these new Indonesian attitude and environment scales were used with another sample of 250 Indonesian biology students in an investigation of the effects of classroom psychosocial environment on students’ science‐related attitudes. The finding of statistically significant associations between environment and attitudes replicated much prior work in science classrooms in developed countries. For example, more favourable science‐related attitudes on several scales were found in classes perceived as having more personalization, participation, investigation and order and organization.

     

Book reviews

Psychology of the Junior High‐School Pupil. By L. A. Peckstein (University of Cincinnati) and A. Laura McGregor (Rochester, N. Y., Public Schools). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1924. Pp. xxii + 280. Price, $2.

Modern Methods in Teaching. By H. B. Wilson, George C. Kyte, and H. G. Lull. New York: Silver, Burdett & Co., 1924. Pp. vi + 286. Price, $1.64.

Elementary School Costs in the State of New York. By R. O. Stoops. A report reviewed and presented by the Educational Finance Inquiry Commission under the auspices of the American Council on Education, Washington, D. C. New York: Macmillan Co., 1924.

The Cost and Support of Secondary Schools in the State of New York. By Charles W. Hunt. A report reviewed and presented by the Educational Finance Inquiry Commission under the auspices of the American Council on Education, Washington, D. C. New York: Macmillan Co., 1924.

Interesting Neighbors. By Oliver P. Jenkins. Philadelphia: P. Blakiston's Sons & Co., 1922. Pp. xi + 248.

The Humanizing of Knowledge. By J. H. Robinson. New York: George H. Doran Company, 1923. Pp. ix + 117. Price, $1.50.

Education of Gifted Children. By Lula M. Stedman (University of California, Southern Branch). Yonkers‐on‐Hudson: World Book Co., 1924. Pp. viii+ 192. Price, $1.80.     

Time in the arts and physical education and school achievement

With the increase in state‐mandated high‐stakes testing across the USA, schools and school districts are considering ways of increasing instructional time for core curricular subjects such as mathematics, science, English, and social studies. One seemingly logical approach to improving test scores is to reduce the time spent in subjects that are not tested, most notably art, music, and physical education, thus increasing time for the tested subjects. In this study, data was collected from 547 Virginia elementary school principals who completed a survey indicating the time specialists taught art, music, and physical education in their schools. After controlling for socio‐cultural opportunities associated with the school community, partial correlations between time allocation and school‐level passing rates on the Virginia Standards of Learning tests indicated no meaningful relationship between time allocation to art, music, and physical education and school achievement. The findings from the study do not support the notion that a reduced time allocation to art, music, and physical education is related to higher test scores.     

Child sex abuse treatment: Some barriers to program operation

A treatment program for sexually abusing families is described, which illustrates the complexities in the families, in the treatment required to assist them, and in the interrelations of agencies with whom they come into contact. The program used a multi-therapist, multi-modality treatment model in conjunction with expert consultants in medicine, psychology, art therapy, law, criminology, and research. The article discusses the formidable barriers to creating a treatment program that stem from the necessity of establishing linkages with other agencies and systems in the society. These barriers include the difficulty other service providers may have in recognizing the problem; the trouble doctors, lawyers, and policemen have in interviewing the young victims; the problems in the criminal justice system with obtaining justice for the victim by arresting and prosecuting the offender while protecting his rights; and the conflict of the schools caught between their responsibility as mandated reporters of abuse and the legal rights of the parent-offender. Questions are raised which may assist others embarked on developing similar programs.