Science processes

During the past twenty years, research, curriculum development, and instruction in science education have been influenced by Gagne's conception of science processes. This article reports an investigation of the epistomologic foundations of this conception. The results indicate that a commitment to inductive empiricism pervades the presently held view of science processes. A major tenet of this commitment is that conceptual knowledge results from the application of science processes in understanding natural phenomena and solving problems. Criticism of the commitment in light of recent developments in the philosophy of science reveals that there is limited philosophical support for this view. The implication is that if science educators continue to use the presently held view of science processes, the conception needs to be reformulated. Otherwise, there is a clear danger that students will be presented an inaccurate and inadequate view of science processes. The alternative is to view the exact nature of science processes as being dependent upon the conceptual knowledge that is used to understand a particular phenomena or problem.     

Differential second-order aversive conditioning using contextual stimuli

Two experiments were conducted to determine if contextual stimuli used as S₂ in a higher-order differential conditioning procedure would control the performance of rats. Discrete stimuli were first paired with footshock in a separate training context. During second-order training, a shock-associated discrete stimulus was presented in one of two discriminable observation chambers. Over 4 days of training, subjects engaged in more freezing in the context associated with an excitatory discrete S₁, relative to a context in which no discrete stimulus, or a stimulus that had been explicitly unpaired with shock delivery, was presented. After acquisition of the second-order discrimination, animals were returned to the original training context where they received a “signaled inflation” treatment designed to change the current value of S₁, and the US. This postconditioning manipulation did not selectively affect performance of defensive freezing or conditional analgesia in S₂.     

The current status of instructional design theories in relation to today's authoring systems*

It is of course very difficult to accurately project important characteristics of the future state of any rapidly evolving field, and the field of authoring systems for computer‐assisted instruction (CAI) is no exception. However, strong trends in evolving CAI systems of today would seem to indicate some important characteristics of the software systems underlying tomorrow's automated instructional systems. Under the premise that form follows function, this paper will explore the functional impetus of some of the most important trends extant in terms of their roots in a powerful, emerging technology of instructional design. This technology promises to complement the advancing hardware and software technologies, by supplying that sine qua non of successful instructional materials. It is inevitable that systems of the future will make (and indeed are making) significant accommodations of this vital technology as it matures, and therefore some important characteristics of tomorrow's systems can be predicated upon what is already known of this technology of instructional design.     

The effects of constructivist learning environments: a commentary

This special issue on the effects of constructivist learning environments is based on a symposium organized during the last annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in Chicago. The studies in this issue not only provide an overview of the multitude of forms a constructivist learning environment can take, they also provide the reader with an overview of recent advances in this domain of research. The present discussion article provides a critical reflection on the studies in this special issue and tries to identify their prospects and limitations.     

Fulfilment of the basic psychological needs of student teachers during their first teaching experiences

This study focuses on an under-researched area, namely the fulfilment of basic psychological needs of student teachers during their first teaching experiences. Based on the Self-determination Theory of Ryan and Deci [(2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E.L. Deci, R.M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination research (pp. 3–33). Rochester: The University of Rochester Press] and the work of Epstein [(1998a). Cognitive-experiential self-theory: A dual-process personality theory with implications for diagnosis and psychotherapy. In R.F. Bornstein, J.M. Masling (Eds.), Empirical perspectives on the psychoanalytic unconscious (pp. 99–140). Washington, DC: APA; (1998b). Constructive thinking: The key to emotional intelligence. Westport: Praeger], it could be demonstrated that need fulfilment has a strong influence on student teachers’ teaching experiences, especially in a non-rational way, for instance through feelings and images. Thwarting of the needs appears to be correlated with images showing fight, flight, and freeze tendencies, whereas need fulfilment concurs with flow tendencies. The fulfilment of the need for competence, relatedness, and autonomy in student teachers is considerably less than in experienced teachers. We discuss the consequences for research in this field, and recommendations for teacher education.     

Studying student teachers' concerns,combining image‐based and more traditional research techniques

In a study of student teachers' concerns, a combination of image‐based and more traditional research techniques was used. The first year student teachers appeared to be most concerned about matters that, in their view, form the core task of teaching, such as ‘selecting and teaching content well’, ‘motivating pupils to learn’ and ‘adapting myself to the needs of different pupils’. They are less concerned about matters that are not central to the immediate task of teaching or that they, as student teachers, cannot influence. In line with other research, their concerns remained reasonably stable during their first year of teaching. Drawings appeared to be a reasonably reliable and valid means of assessing concerns and seemed to elicit a specific type of information when compared with more widely used research techniques such as the card sorting technique and interviews used in this research.

Dans une étude concernant les préoccupations d'étudiants futurs enseignants, plusieurs techniques de recherche diverses ont été utilisées: des techniques basées sur l'image et d'autres plus traditionnelles. Les étudiants de première année se révèlent plus sensibles à des choses qui, à leur sens, constituent l'essence même du travail de l'enseignant comme ‘bien choisir et enseigner un contenu’, ‘motiver les élèves à apprendre’ et ‘s’adapter aux divers besoins des élèves'. Ils s'avèrent en revanche moins concernés par des sujets ne jouant pas immédiatement un rôle central ou direct dans la mission d'enseigner ou sur lesquels, en tant que futur enseignant encore en cours de formation, ils n'ont pas d'influence. Comme l'étayent d'autres recherches, ces préoccupations restent plutôt stables au cours de leur première année d'expérience pratique dans l'enseignement. Les dessins se sont avérés être des moyens assez fiables et valables pour l'évaluation des préoccupations et permettant d'extraire un type d'information spécifique par rapport à d'autres techniques de recherche auxquelles il est plus fréquemment fait appel comme le tri de cartes ou l'interview, également utilisées lors de cette étude.

En un estudio sobre las preocupaciones de los estudiantes de profesorado, se usó una combinación de técnicas de investigación basadas en imágenes y otras técnicas más tradicionales. Parece ser que durante el primer año, a los estudiantes de profesorado les preocupan sobre todo los temas que en su visión constituye la tarea central de la enseñanza, como por ejemplo ‘seleccionar y enseñar bien el contenido’, ‘motivar a los alumnos a aprender’ y ‘adaptarme a las necesidades de diferentes alumnos’. Les preocupan menos los asuntos no tan directamente relacionados con la enseñanza, o en los que ellos, como estudiantes de profesorado, no pueden influir. En línea con los resultados de otros estudios, sus preocupaciones permanecieron estables durante el primer año de enseñanza. El método de los dibujos demostró ser fiable y válido para evaluar las preocupaciones, y parecía generar un determinado tipo de información en comparación con técnicas más ampliamente usadas, como la técnica de clasificación de cartas y las entrevistas, que también se aplicaron en este estudio.

In einer Studie über die Interessen von Lehrern im ersten Studienjahr wurde eine Kombination aus visuellen und traditionelleren Forschungstechniken gewählt. Die Studenten des ersten Jahres scheinen am meisten an Dingen interessiert zu sein, die ihrer Ansicht nach zu den Kernaufgaben des Lernens gehören, wie zum Beispiel ‘richtige Auswahl und Vermittlung des Wissens, ‘motivierung von Schülern zu lernen’ und ‘meine Anpassung an die Bedürfnisse der jeweiligen Schüler’. Sie sind weniger interessiert an Dingen, die nicht zu der unmittelbaren Lehrtätigkeit gehören oder die sie als Student nicht beeinflussen können. Im Rahmen anderer Forschungstechniken waren ihre Interessen im ersten Studienjahr ziemlich konstant. Zeichnungen erwiesen sich als angemessenes und gültiges Mittel zur Bewertung der Interessen und führten zu einer bestimmten Art von Informationen, wenn man Vergleiche mit den weiterverbreiteten Forschungstechniken wie Card‐Sorting‐Technik und Interviews anstellt, die in dieser Forschung angewandt werden.     

学术评价的多变量指标探讨

结合集成影响指标(I3)和h指数构成I3型多变量指标框架,获得发文矢量X=(X1,X2,X3)和引文矢量Y=(Y1,Y2,Y3)、集成发文指数I3X=X1+X2+X3和集成引文指数I3Y=Y1+Y2+Y3等多变量指标。实证研究显示:整体h核分布适用于评价学者,h核指数X1和Y1适用于评价大学的核心影响力,集成指数I3X和I3Y适合替代期刊影响因子JIF。多变量指标为学术评价提供了结合I3和h指数优势的多维视角,可丰富学术评价测度。图5。表4。参考文献18。附表3。     

The action‐motivation matrix: Positions people take regarding problems

This article presents the action‐motivation matrix and uses it to identify and examine four basic positions people take with respect to the problems they encounter in the workplace. The matrix arrays reactive‐proactive actions against approach‐avoidance motivation resulting in four cells labeled Firefighter, Early Bird, Phantom, and Artful Dodger. The matrix provides insight, guidance, and ideas to individuals, management, and performance improvement professionals in their efforts to better understand and manage problem‐solving behavior.     

Discriminating between attitudes expressed by normal and disabled readers

The Survey of Reading Attitudes was administered to 84 normal and 116 disabled readers from the intermediate grades, and a discriminate function analysis was performed on their scores for the eight dimensions of reading attitudes measured by the Survey. The findings indicate that Expressed Reading Difficulty, Reading as Enjoyment, and Reading Group are the three variables that discriminate between these two groups. In comparison with normal readers, disabled readers are more likely to feel negatively about their reading group, less likely to see themselves as pursuing reading for its intrinsic value, and more likely to perceive of themselves as having difficulty with reading. However, the extent to which these findings can be generalized beyond the present sample of white Appalachian students must be established through future research.