Learning by pigeons playing against tit-for-tat in an operant prisoner’s dilemma

Each of four pigeons was exposed to a single random-ratio schedule of reinforcement in which the probability of reinforcement for a peck on either of two keys was 1/25. Reinforcer amounts were determined by an iterated prisoner’s dilemma (IPD) matrix in which the “other player” (a computer) playedtit-for-tat. One key served as thecooperation(C) key; the other served as thedefection(D) key. If a peck was scheduled to be reinforced and the D-key was pecked, the immediate reinforcer of that peck was always higher than it would have been had the C-key been pecked. However, if the C-key was pecked and thefollowing peck was scheduled to be reinforced, reinforcement amount for pecks on either key were higher than they would have been if the previous peck had been on the D-key. Although immediate reinforcement was always higher for D-pecks, the overall reinforcement rate increased linearly with the proportion of C-pecks. C-pecks thus constituted a form of self-control. All the pigeons initially defected with this procedure. However, when feedback signals were introduced that indicated which key had last been pecked,cooperation (relative rate of C-pecks)—hence, self-control—increased for all the pigeons.     

Depressive symptoms in and type of classroom placement for adolescents with LD

This study investigated the relationship of depressive symptomatology to type of classroom placement in a sample of adolescents with learning disabilities who attended an urban public high school. Fifty-two students, half of whom were in self-contained classrooms and half of whom were in general education classrooms with resource room, self-rated their depressive symptoms. Their guidance counselors also rated these students' depressive symptoms. Self-ratings of depression did not differ depending on classroom placement. Guidance counselors rated students with learning disabilities who were in general education classrooms as more depressed than students placed in self-contained classes.     

“I have a little,little, little footprint on the world” and “I’m not political”: feelings of low self-efficacy and the effect of identity on environmental behaviour in educators

Abstract

Environmental educators in both formal and informal settings work to develop students’ environmental literacy, with the goal of developing adult citizens who care about the environment and are knowledgeable and prepared to engage in behaviours to address environmental issues. Yet little attention has been paid to educator environmental literacy. Here we report the findings from an interview study of formal educators from K-12 settings and informal educators from out-of-school settings. Overall, educators favoured personal-level behaviours. In addition, some educators reported poor environmental self-efficacy for three main reasons: the scale of the problem, other negative environmental behaviour that offsets positive behaviour, and the need for system-level behaviour Educators rarely engaged in system-level behaviour due to distrust of the system, inexperience, and the rejection of political or activist identity.     

苏格拉底式教学在高校双语师资培训中的应用——广东金融学院双语教师培训(二)

2006年和2007年在相继在广东金融学院举办了第二期、第三期双语师资培训项目。项目分为三个阶段:第一阶段强调"信心构建",该阶段目的是最大化学员在公开讨论和提问中的发言时间。当学员们克服了传统的沉默开始对话和辩论时,项目进入第二阶段——重点培训"有效沟通",这一阶段的关键因素在于倾听者和发言者的责任、语言路标和时间管理、团队管理和任务管理。项目的最后阶段着重培训"良好的英语学术表达形式"。     

Developing cognitive‐social‐emotional competencies to enhance academic learning

This preliminary study examined intervention effects of a universal prevention program offered by classroom teachers to public elementary school students. The Unique Minds School Program (M.B. Stern, 1999) is a teacher‐led program designed to promote cognitive‐social‐emotional (CSE) skills, including student self‐efficacy, problem solving, social‐emotional competence, and a positive classroom climate, with the dual goal of preventing youth behavioral problems and promoting academic learning. During 2 consecutive school years, 119 students and their teachers were assessed in the fall and spring of Grade 4 and again in the spring of Grade 5. As compared to students in the comparison school, students in the intervention showed gains in student self‐efficacy, problem solving, social‐emotional competencies, and math grades. Incremental gains within CSE domains were found after 1 and 2 years of intervention. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 42: 405–417, 2005.     

Teacher and technologist beliefs about educational technology

This study investigated perceptions of teachers and educational technologists about the following areas: instructional design, cooperative learning, learner control, school reform, computers and media, and implementation of a key practice in each area in their teaching. Subjects were 477 individuals representing four respondent groups: educational technology faculty, educational technology graduate students, K-8 teachers, and 9–12 teachers. Data were collected using a 30-item, five-choice Likert-type questionnaire containing five items per topic area. Significant differences between groups were found on 16 items, with an overall total of 32 significant between-group differences. Nineteen of the 32 differences were between K-8 teachers and either the educational technology faculty or the graduate students. K-8 teachers had significantly more positive perceptions than one or both of the educational technology groups on all five of the cooperative learning items and on three of the five learner control items. The results suggest approaches that educational technologists can use in teaching instructional design courses and in designing instructional programs for the schools. Deborah L. Lowther is Program Evaluator for the Phoenix Urban Systemic Initiative which is sponsored by the National Science Foundation and Maricopa Community Colleges. The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the following people to this study: Gayle Davidson, Thomas Duffy, Nick Eastmond, Donald Ely, Michael Hannafin, Simon Hooper, James Klein, Kyle Peck, Robert Reiser, Lloyd Rieber, and Steven Ross.