Initial steps in creating a developmentally valid tool for observing/assessing rope jumping

Background: Valid motor development sequences show the various behaviors that children display as they progress toward competence in specific motor skills. Teachers can use these sequences to observe informally or formally assess their students. While longitudinal study is ultimately required to validate developmental sequences, there are earlier, pre-longitudinal steps that can be used to screen hypothesized sequences to see if they are worthy of the time and expense of longitudinal study. These same steps can also provide teachers with preliminary tools for observation/assessment. Purpose: At the request of physical educators in a midwestern suburb in the United States, the investigators screened developmental sequences for the action of arms and legs in self-turned rope jumping. The goal was to create a preliminary assessment tool that could be used in physical education classes. Participants: The physical educators took videos of 216 children attempting to jump rope. The children were 5–10 years of age. Data analysis: The investigators categorized the videos using the hypothesized developmental sequences as a checklist. The incidence of each level in the sequences was then graphed to see if the percentages of occurrence rose and fell across age as would be expected if the levels were developmentally valid. The investigators also looked at whether children who varied their behavior across trials varied only to adjacent levels in the sequences. Results: Results indicated that one hypothesized arm category was not developmental, and two leg categories needed further study in younger children. Based on these results, the investigators modified the proposed sequences and provided decision rules so teachers could use them as preliminary observation/assessment tools.     

Calibration of context-specific survey items to assess youth physical activity behaviour

This study tests calibration models to re-scale context-specific physical activity (PA) items to accelerometer-derived PA. A total of 195 4th–12th grades children wore an Actigraph monitor and completed the Physical Activity Questionnaire (PAQ) one week later. The relative time spent in moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA_%) obtained from the Actigraph at recess, PE, lunch, after-school, evening and weekend was matched with a respective item score obtained from the PAQ’s. Item scores from 145 participants were calibrated against objective MVPA_% using multiple linear regression with age, and sex as additional predictors. Predicted minutes of MVPA for school, out-of-school and total week were tested in the remaining sample (n = 50) using equivalence testing. The results showed that PAQ β-weights ranged from 0.06 (lunch) to 4.94 (PE) MVPA_% (P < 0.05) and models root mean square error ranged from 4.2% (evening) to 20.2% (recess). When applied to an independent sample, differences between PAQ and accelerometer MVPA at school and out-of-school ranged from ?15.6 to +3.8 min and the PAQ was within 10–15% of accelerometer measured activity. This study demonstrated that context-specific items can be calibrated to predict minutes of MVPA in groups of youth during in- and out-of-school periods.     

Classifying performer strategies in drop landing activities

Our purpose was to use group and single-case methods to examine inter-individual variability in the context of factors related to landing injuries. We tested the load accommodation strategies model (An exploration of load accommodation strategies during walking with extremity-carried weights. Human Movement Science, 35, 17–29) using landing impulse, revealing pre-landing strategies following height and external load manipulations. Ten healthy volunteers (8 male, 2 female, 24.0 ± 1.4 years, 1.72 ± 0.06 m, 73.5 ± 8.7 kg) were analysed across 12 trials in each of three load conditions (100% body weight [BW], 110% BW, 120% BW) from two landing heights (30 cm, 60 cm). Landing impulse (BW ? s) was computed for each participant-condition-trial, using impulse ratios (unit-less; BW ? s/BW ? s) to evaluate load accommodation strategies between adjacent load conditions (110%/100%, 120%/110%) at each landing height. Load accommodation strategy classifications were based on 95% confidence intervals (CIs) containing mechanically predicted impulse ratios (1.10 and 1.09 for 110/100% BW and 120/110% BW, respectively; α = 0.05). Mean group impulse ratios matched and exceeded predicted impulse ratios. Single-case analyses revealed a range of individual landing strategies that might be overlooked during group analyses, possibly uncovering individuals at greater risk of injury during landing activities.     

The relationship between the Woodcock-Johnson psycho-educational battery-revised (early development) and the Wechsler preschool and primary scale of intelligence-revised

The concurrent validity between the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised Tests of Cognitive Ability (WJ-R, COG) (Early Development) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Revised (WPPSI-R) was examined. These two measures were administered in two separate sessions in counterbalanced order to 30 normal 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old subjects from the Midwest. Findings suggested that the WJ-R Broad Cognitive Ability (BCA) and the WPPSI-R Full Scale IQ (FSIQ) and Verbal IQ (VIQ) were significantly correlated, but that the mean BCA scores on the WJ-R (COG) were significantly below the mean FSIQ scores on the WPPSI-R by only - 4.50 standard score points. No age or sex differences were found on either the WJ-R (COG) or the WPPSI-R. Significant correlations were found between the WJ-R (COG) BCA and the following WJ-R (COG) Broad Ability Factor scores: Long-Term Retrieval, Short-Term Memory, Auditory Processing, and one test called Picture Vocabulary representing comprehension-knowledge. A significant correlation was also found between the WPPSI-R Performance IQ (PIQ) and the WJ-R (COG) Visual Processing cluster. Findings are discussed in terms of the theories of intelligence underlying each test. Implications for assessment of preschoolers under PL 99–457 also are discussed.     

The impact of PL 94-142 on the practice of school psychology: A national survey

This paper presents the results of a national survey of school psychologists to determine the impact of PL 94-142 on the role of the school psychologist. Data were based on responses to 856 surveys by practicing school psychologists who were selected randomly from the NASP membership list during 1979-80. The results suggested that this legislation has had remarkably little impact on the evaluation procedures used or on the school psychologist's role. The two clear changes that have occurred may have negative implications for psychological services (e.g., an increased focus on handicapped children and increased paperwork). It was found that many school psychologists are involved in evaluation, but do not have time to be involved in the IEP process, or to provide follow-up consultation, or direct intervention for prevention and/or therapeutic purposes. This problem was exacerbated in districts that had ratios of greater than 1,000 to 1. Despite these problems, many respondents view the legislation in positive terms, and feel it has helped to enlarge the scope of practice.     

Handling Small Talk at Work: Challenges for workers with intellectual disabilities

Interpersonal workplace interaction provides many challenges for workers with intellectual disabilities. While these workers are generally able to handle well the tasks required of them at work, the social interaction which others manage with ease often presents unexpected hurdles to such workers. This paper analyses tape-recorded workplace small talk collected in a range of New Zealand workplaces, including workplaces employing workers with intellectual disabilities. The topics, the distributional patterns, and the functions of small talk are described, and aspects of the management of small talk which may present problems to workers with intellectual disabilities are illustrated and discussed. Finally, some suggestions are provided concerning ways in which teachers and trainers may be able to assist workers acquire some of the basic sociolinguistic skills in small talk needed to operate effectively in their workplaces.     

Student restraints to reform: Conceptual change issues in enhancing students' learning processes

Considerable research has been published on students' alternative conceptions of science concepts and the means of addressing those alternative conceptions. However, few studies have been reported on students' conceptions of learning and consequent learning processes and attempts to change such conceptions and processes. Recent research has shown that students' beliefs can act as barriers to the implementation of educational reforms that aim to alter students' learning processes. In this study an interpretive methodology was employed by a teacher participant-observer to investigate barriers to students' adoption of an alternative referent for learning and its consequent learning strategies in a Grade 11 chemistry class. Student narratives suggest that both “cold” and “hot” contextual factors influenced students' willingness to adopt an alternative referent. The consideration of “hot” factors, including students' beliefs, trust of the teacher, and ownership of the change process, is necessary if such change is to be understood more fully. The value and difficulties of a teacher adopting this researcher's perspective are also explored.     

The Relation between Mothers' Hostile Attribution Tendencies and Children's Externalizing Behavior Problems: The Mediating Role of Mothers' Harsh Discipline Practices

This study examined relations among mothers' hostile attribution tendencies regarding their children's ambiguous problem behaviors, mothers' harsh discipline practices, and children's externalizing behavior problems. A community sample of 277 families (19% minority representation) living in three geographic regions of the United States was followed for over 4 years. Mothers' hostile attribution tendencies were assessed during the summer prior to children's entry into kindergarten through their responses to written vignettes. Mothers' harsh discipline practices were assessed concurrently through ratings by interviewers and reports by spouses. Children's externalizing behavior problems were assessed concurrently through written questionnaires by mothers and fathers and in the spring of kindergarten and first, second, and third grades through reports by teachers and peer sociometric nominations. Results of structural equations models demonstrated that mothers' hostile attribution tendencies predicted children's future externalizing behavior problems at school and that a large proportion of this relation was mediated by mothers' harsh discipline practices. These results remained virtually unchanged when controlling for initial levels of children's prekindergarten externalizing behavior problems at home.     

Refining Assessment for Resource Based Learning

Technology has introduced a new dimension into resource based learning, with the opportunities for flexibility in time and place offered by delivery of course material either through CD‐ROM or the World Wide Web (WWW), and the potential for access to a wide variety of diverse information sources. Many projects are currently experimenting with courses using these delivery media. This paper describes part of an action research project in which a study of student perspectives on assessment for a resource based UK Open University course highlights those aspects of assessment which appear to support student learning effectively. The feedback has been used to refine three of the assignments, as a way of fine tuning the course pedagogy.