Interleukin-6 and Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness Do Not Vary During the Menstrual Cycle

The purpose of this study was to determine if a difference in interleukin-6 (IL-6) and delayed onset muscles soreness (DOMS) exists in two different phases of the menstrual cycle. Nine runners performed one 75-min high-intensity interval running session during the early follicular (EF) phase and once during the midluteal (ML) phase of the menstrual cycle. Estrogen and progesterone levels were significantly reduced in the EF phase when compared to the ML phase. IL-6 levels increased from pre- to postexercise in the EF and ML phases (p < .001). There was no relationship between the IL-6 level and DOMS. The results suggest that menstruating female runners need not vary training throughout the month to reduce DOMS.     

Specificity of a Maximal Step Exercise Test

To adhere to the principle of “exercise specificity” exercise testing should be completed using the same physical activity that is performed during exercise training. The present study was designed to assess whether aerobic step exercisers have a greater maximal oxygen consumption (max VO₂) when tested using an activity specific, maximal step exercise test (SET; arms and legs) versus a maximal running test (legs only). Female aerobic step exercisers (N=18; 20.7 ± 1.5 years) performed three maximal graded exercise tests (GXTs): 2 SETs; 1 treadmill test (TMT). The SET consisted of six 3-min progressive stages of alternate lead, basic step, basic step with biceps curls, knee raise with pull-down, repeater knee with pull-down, lateral lunge with pull-down, and side squat with shoulder presses. Stepping rate was 32 steps· min^?1 on an 8-in (20.32 cm) step for stages 1–3, and a 10-in (25.4 cm) step for stages 4–6. Submaximal and maximal heart rate (HR) and oxygen consumption (VO₂) were recorded at the end of each stage. Test–retest reliability for the first five stages of the SET ranged from .91 to .97 for HR, and from .84 to .96 for VO₂. Maximal HR was significantly greater (p =.0001) for the SET (200 ± 6.2 beats·min^?1) as compared to the TMT (193 ± 7.9 beats·min^?1). No significant difference was found for max VO₂ (42.9 ± 8.5, 41.2 ± 5.9 ml·kg^?1·min^?1, p =.14). The SET was a valid and reliable protocol for assessing responses of these aerobic step exercisers; however, max VO₂ from a TMT did not differ significantly from the SET. Conversely, max HR obtained from the criterion TMT was 7 beats·min^?1 lower than from the SET. If a training HR for step exercise (arms and legs exercise) is prescribed based on the max HR from treadmill exercise (legs only), then the training HR should be calculated from a TMT max HR that has been increased by 7 beats·min^?1 to obtain an intensity of step exercise comparable to that of running.     

The influence of moment of inertia on baseball/softball bat swing speed

The speed at which a player can swing a bat is central to the games of baseball and softball, determining, to a large extent, the hit speed of the ball. Experimental and analytical studies of bat swing speed were conducted with particular emphasis on the influence of bat moment of inertia on swing speed. Two distinct sets of experiments measured the swing speed of colege baseball and fast-pitch softball players using weighted rods and modified bats. The swing targets included flexible targets, balls on a tee and machine pitched balls. Internal mass alterations provided a range of inertial properties. The average measured speeds, from 22 to 31 m s⁻¹, are consistent with previous studies. Bat speed approximately correlates with the moment of inertia of the bat about a vertical axis of rotation through the batter's body, the speed generally decreasing as this moment of inertia increases. The analytical model assumes pure rotation of the batter/bat system about a vertical axis through the batter's body. Aerodynamic drag of the batter's arms and the bat is included in the model. The independent variable is bat moment of inertia about the rotation axis. There is reasonable agreement between the model and the measured speeds. Detailed differences between the two suggest the importance of additional degrees of freedom in determining swing speed.     

Bilingual PA and its influence on biliteracy for Korean English as a foreign language learners

This study examines the relationship between phonological awareness (PA) in the two languages of Korean English as a foreign language learning children in relation to L1 characteristics and school experiences, and its predictive role in word decoding skills in each language. Seventy-two 5?C6-year-old Korean children who had attended English-medium preschools and kindergartens for at least 18?months were tested on a range of PA and emergent literacy skill measures in both Korean (L1) and English (L2). The findings indicate that the phonological representations of the participants reflect more of the L1, rather than school language, characteristics. In addition, L1 PA, syllable and phoneme awareness in particular, was predictive of L2 decoding abilities after accounting for L2 PA and emergent literacy skills. The results are discussed in terms of language-specific L1 phonological and orthographic characteristics, as well as their L2-learning contexts.     

Drawing Parallels in Search of Educational Equity: A Multicultural Education Delegation to China Looks Outside to See Within

In 2004, a professional delegation of multicultural educators visited the People's Republic of China to explore how diversity issues are addressed and how students are prepared for entry into the international workforce. The delegation, sponsored by the People to People Ambassador Programs, observed numerous parallels to the American system of education, including the challenge of providing equity for students of minority cultures, especially those in poor rural areas, and the conflict between modernization and preservation of cultural heritage.     

Within-year changes in children’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations: Contextual predictors and academic outcomes

The present study was designed to investigate the nature, timing, and correlates of motivational change among a large sample (N = 1051) of third- through eighth-grade students. Analyses of within-year changes in students’ motivational orientations revealed that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations decreased from fall to spring, with declines in intrinsic motivation especially pronounced for the adolescents and declines in extrinsic motivation especially pronounced for the elementary students. These changes in motivation were explained, in part, by shifts in students’ perceptions of the school goal context. Findings suggested that typical age-related declines in intrinsic motivation may be minimized by a school-wide focus on mastery goals. Finally, the potential academic consequences of students’ motivational orientations were examined with a series of hierarchical multiple regressions. Intrinsic motivation and classroom achievement appeared to influence one another in a positive and reciprocal fashion. Poor classroom performance minimally predicted higher levels of extrinsic motivation, but extrinsic motivation was not a source of low classroom grades.     

Reducing Children's Implicit Racial Bias Through Exposure to Positive Out‐Group Exemplars

Studies with adults suggest that implicit preferences favoring White versus Black individuals can be reduced through exposure to positive Black exemplars. However, it remains unclear whether developmental differences exist in the capacity for these biases to be changed. This study included 369 children and examined whether their implicit racial bias would be reduced following exposure to positive Black exemplars. Results showed that children's implicit pro‐White bias was reduced following exposure to positive Black exemplars, but only for older children (M_age = ~10 years). Younger children's (M_age = ~7 years) implicit bias was not affected by this intervention. These results suggest developmental differences in the malleability of implicit racial biases and point to possible age differences in intervention effectiveness.     

Probability with Roulette

This article describes how roulette can be used to teach basic concepts of probability. Various bets are used to illustrate the computation of expected value. A betting system shows variations in patterns that often appear in random events.