Responsiveness of the anterior cruciate ligament – Return to Sports after Injury (ACL-RSI) and Injury – Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport (I-PRRS) scales

ABSTRACT

The ACL-Return to Sport after Injury (ACL-RSI) and Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport (I-PRRS) scales were developed to assess psychological factors associated with return to sports. Validity and reliability have been determined. The aim of this study was to investigate the responsiveness of the Dutch ACL-RSI and I-PRRS. Seventy patients with ACL reconstruction completed both scales twice 2 months apart, plus a Global Rating of Change (GRC) questionnaire. Distribution and logistic regression-based methods were used to study responsiveness. The Standardized Response Mean (SRM) for the ACL-RSI was 0.3 and for the I-PRRS 0.1, indicating low responsiveness. The minimally important change (MIC) for ACL-RSI was 2.6 and for the I-PRRS 0.9. Since the standard error of measurement (SEM) and smallest detectable change (SDC) were larger than MIC in individual patients, it does not seem possible to distinguish minimally important changes from measurement error in individual patients with either scale. At the group level responsiveness seemed sufficient; hence, both scales can be used to investigate the effectiveness of an intervention at the group level. Both scales can also be used in cross-sectional research and in clinical practice as screening instruments to identify patients at risk of not returning to sports.     

The effects of eccentric phase duration on concentric outcomes in the back squat and bench press in well-trained males

ABSTRACT

The velocity and magnitude in which the eccentric phase of an exercise is completed directly affects performance during the concentric phase. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of eccentric phase duration on concentric outcomes at 60% and 80% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the squat and bench press. Sixteen college-aged, resistance-trained males completed 1RM testing, established normative eccentric durations, and performed fast (0.75 times normative) and slow (2.0 times normative) metronome-controlled eccentric duration repetitions. Outcome measures assessed during the concentric phase were: average concentric velocity (ACV), peak concentric velocity (PCV), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), range of motion (ROM), and barbell path. Eccentric duration was significantly and inversely correlated with ACV at 60% (r = ?0.408, p = 0.004) and 80% (r = ?0.477, p = 0.001) of 1RM squat. At 60% of 1RM squat, both fast and slow eccentric conditions produced greater (p < 0.001) PCV than normative duration with fast also producing greater PCV than slow (p = 0.044). Eccentric duration had no impact on RPE, ROM, or barbell path. Our results report for the first time that resistance-trained males performing a deliberately faster eccentric phase may enhance their own squat and bench press performance.     

Changing attitudes and intentions related to doping: An analysis of individual differences in need for cognition

ABSTRACT

Research has shown that athletes’ attitudes towards the use of banned performance-enhancing substances are reliable predictors of their intentions to use these substances, which in turn can be relevant predictors of their actual doping behaviours. Despite the important role played by attitudes and intentions in doping, research analysing how to change those attitudes and intentions is relatively scarce. The present study examined how individual differences in Need for Cognition (NC, Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) influenced doping-related attitude change and subsequent behavioural intentions. Participants were randomly assigned to read a persuasive message either against or in favour of legalising the use of several banned substances, including anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and Erythropoietin (EPO). In addition, participants completed the NC scale, and finally reported their attitudes and behavioural intentions regarding the legalisation proposal. As hypothesised, results showed that participants who received an anti-legalisation message had significantly more unfavourable attitudes towards the proposal than participants who received a pro-legalisation message, regardless of NC. However, as predicted, NC moderated the relationship between individuals’ attitudes and their intentions. That is, high-NC participants showed greater attitude-intention correspondence than low-NC participants.     

Physiological efficiency of constant power output at varying pedal rates

Abstract

The study investigated the absolute and relative (% maximal) physiological demands of constant power output at three pedal rates chosen to incorporate the range used by racing cyclists. Following the assessment of maximal exercise capabilities utilizing a recently developed racing cycle ergometry system, ten highly trained racing cyclists undertook a randomized sequence of work bouts at low (70.0 ± 1.1), medium (94.8 ± 0.8) and high (126.5 ± 1.1) pedal rates per minute at constant power output under an unloaded (free wheel) condition and under a loaded (196.2 ± 8.0 W) condition which demanded approximately 75% VO₂ max. In both the unloaded and loaded conditions absolute cardiorespiratory demands of work at the highest pedal rate were significantly higher than those at the low and medium pedal rates (P<0.05). Similarly, the relative (% max) cardiorespiratory demands of unloaded work at the highest pedalling rate were significantly greater that at low and medium pedal rates (P < 0.05). There were clear, but nonsignificant trends of elevated relative cardiorespiratory demands during loaded work at the highest pedal rate, compared with low and medium pedal rates. Furthermore, net muscular efficiency demonstrated a significant decline (P<0.01) at the highest pedalling rate (21.2%) compared with the medium (24.0%) and low (25.6%) pedalling rates, confirming that metabolic economy of constant power output declined with increased pedalling rate under simulated racing cycling conditions.     

Recovery from prolonged exercise: Restoration of water and electrolyte balance

Rapid and complete restoration of fluid balance after exercise is an important part of the recovery process, especially in hot, humid conditions, when sweat losses may be high. Rehydration after exercise can only be achieved if the electrolytes lost in sweat, as well as the lost water, are replaced. However, the amount of electrolytes lost in sweat is highly variable between individuals and although the optimum drink may be achieved by matching drink electrolyte intake with sweat electrolyte loss, this is virtually impossible in sport settings. The composition of sweat varies considerably not only between individuals, but also with time during exercise and it is further influenced by the state of acclimatization. A moderate excess of salt intake would appear to be beneficial as far as hydration status is concerned, without any detrimental effects on health, provided that fluid intake is in excess of sweat loss and that renal function is not impaired. To achieve effective rehydration following exercise in the heat, the rehydration beverage should contain moderately high levels of sodium (at least 50 mmol l -1 ), and possibly also some potassium. The addition of substrate is not necessary for rehydration, although a small amount of carbohydrate (< 2%) may improve the rate of intestinal uptake of sodium and water. The volume of beverage consumed should be greater than the volume of sweat lost to provide for the ongoing obligatory urine losses. Therefore, the palatability of the beverage is important. Many individuals may lose substantial amounts of sweat and will therefore have to consume large amounts of replacement fluids and this is more likely to be achieved if the taste is perceived as being pleasant. Water alone is adequate for rehydration purposes when solid food is consumed, as this replaces the electrolytes lost in sweat. However, there are many situations where intake of solid food is not possible or is deliberately avoided and, in these instances, the inclusion of electrolytes in rehydration beverages is essential. Where a second exercise bout has to be performed, replacement of sweat losses is an essential part of the recovery process. Exercise performance will be impaired if complete rehydration is not achieved.     

Nutritional strategies for promoting fat utilization and delaying the onset of fatigue during prolonged exercise

Carbohydrate ingestion before and during endurance exercise delays the onset of fatigue (reduced power output). Therefore, endurance athletes are recommended to ingest diets high in carbohydrate (70% of total energy) during competition and training. However, increasing the availability of plasma free fatty acids has been shown to slow the rate of muscle and liver glycogen depletion by promoting the utilization of fat. Ingested fat, in the form of long-chain (C 16-22 ) triacylglycerols, is largely unavailable during acute exercise, but medium-chain (C 8-10 ) triacylglycerols are rapidly absorbed and oxidized. We have shown that the ingestion of medium-chain triacylglycerols in combination with carbohydrate spares muscle carbohydrate stores during 2 h of submaximal (< 70% VO 2 peak) cycling exercise, and improves 40 km time-trial performance. These data suggest that by combining carbohydrate and medium-chain triacylglycerols as a pre-exercise supplement and as a nutritional supplement during exercise, fat oxidation will be enhanced, and endogenous carbohydrate will be spared. We have also examined the chronic metabolic adaptations and effects on substrate utilization and endurance performance when athletes ingest a diet that is high in fat (> 70% by energy). Dietary fat adaptation for a period of at least 2-4 weeks has resulted in a nearly two-fold increase in resistance to fatigue during prolonged, low- to moderate-intensity cycling (< 70% VO 2 peak). Moreover, preliminary studies suggest that mean cycling 20 km time-trial performance following prolonged submaximal exercise is enhanced by 80 s after dietary fat adaptation and 3 days of carbohydrate loading. Thus the relative contribution of fuel substrate to prolonged endurance activity may be modified by training, pre-exercise feeding, habitual diet, or by artificially altering the hormonal milieu or the availability of circulating fuels. The time course and dose-response of these effects on maximizing the oxidative contribution of fat for exercise metabolism and in exercise performance have not been systematically studied during moderate- to high-intensity exercise in humans.     

Optimization of insulin-mediated creatine retention during creatine feeding in humans

Abstract

The aim of this study was to determine whether creatine ingested in combination with relatively small quantities of essential amino acids, simple sugars, and protein would stimulate insulin release and augment whole-body creatine retention to the same extent as a large bolus of simple sugars. Seven young, healthy males underwent three randomized, 3-day experimental trials. Each day, 24-h urine collections were made, and on the second day participants received 5 g creatine + water (creatine trial), 5 g creatine + ～95 g dextrose (creatine + carbohydrate) or 5 g creatine + 14 g protein hydrolysate, 7 g leucine, 7 g phenylalanine, and 57 g dextrose (creatine + protein, amino acids, and carbohydrate) via naso-gastric tube at three equally spaced intervals. Blood samples were collected at predetermined intervals after the first and third naso-gastric bolus. After administration of the first and third bolus, serum insulin concentration was increased by 15 min (P < 0.05) in the creatine + carbohydrate and creatine + protein, amino acids, and carbohydrate trials compared with creatine alone, and plasma creatine increased more following creatine alone (15 min, P < 0.05) than in the creatine + carbohydrate and creatine + protein, amino acids, and carbohydrate trials. Urinary creatine excretion was greater with creatine alone (P < 0.05) than with creatine + carbohydrate and creatine + protein, amino acids, and carbohydrate. Administration of creatine + protein, amino acids, and carbohydrate can stimulate insulin release and augment whole-body creatine retention to the same extent as when larger quantities of simple sugars are ingested.     

Development and validation of the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale

Abstract

Items from the Reinvestment Scale were modified to create a decision-specific version of the scale. Principal components analysis of responses from 165 participants revealed one-, two-, three-, and four-factor solutions for the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale. Confirmatory factor analysis of responses from a second sample of 111 participants revealed that a 13-item two-factor solution showed the best fit. The first factor comprised six items referring to conscious monitoring of the process involved in making a decision, and was termed decision reinvestment. The second factor, decision rumination, comprised seven items related to focus on negative evaluations of previous poor decisions. In an initial assessment of predictive validity, Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale scores of 59 skilled team sport players were found to be highly correlated with coaches' ratings of players' tendency to choke under pressure (r = 0.74), with high Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale scores indicating greater susceptibility to poor decision-making under pressure. It was concluded that the Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale highlights a performer's predisposition to engage in behaviours detrimental to performance under pressure, namely decision reinvestment and decision rumination.     

Digit ratio (2D:4D) and performance in elite rugby players

Abstract

The relative length of the second and fourth digits (2D:4D) is a putative marker for prenatal testosterone. Low 2D:4D has been reported to correlate with high performance in sport in general. Here, for the first time, we examine the relationship between 2D:4D and performance in elite rugby players. The 44 players (28 forwards, 16 backs) were drawn from the Ospreys Rugby Union Club and 44 age-matched controls. The measures of performance comprised age-adjusted number of international performances (caps) for Wales, a comparison of coaches' first-choice League team with others, and the number of tries scored by backs in club matches. Compared with controls, players were larger and had lower 2D:4D for the right and left hand. With regard to number of caps, players with low 2D:4D in their right hand and low right 2D:4D compared with their left (right ? left 2D:4D difference) had high numbers of caps. First-choice players did not differ significantly from second-choice players in their 2D:4D but they did have a lower right ? left 2D:4D difference than second-choice players. Low right 2D:4D and low right ? left 2D:4D difference were significantly linked with large numbers of tries. We conclude that low right 2D:4D and low right ? left 2D:4D difference are predictors of high rugby performance.     

Visually focusing on the far versus the near target during the putting stroke

Abstract

The purpose was to evaluate the traditional method, of visually focusing on the ball, in comparison to focusing on the hole, during the putting stroke. The study design consisted of a pretest, a 4-week practice period, and a posttest. Participants (n = 31, handicap: 18.7 ± 10.4) practised using only one of the two gaze techniques. Testing consisted of having all participants putt using both gaze techniques from both a 1.22 m and a 4 m distance. Five putts were executed for each gaze technique/putt length combination for a total of 20 putts in each testing session per participant. The kinematics of every putting stroke executed during testing (1240 strokes) were captured using a TOMI® system. There was a significant improvement in putting success for both groups following practice (P = 0.001). Practising while visually focusing on the hole, resulted in a statistically significant reduction in putter speed variability in comparison to practising while visually focusing on the ball (P = 0.017). Visually focusing on the hole did not meaningfully (nor statistically) affect the quality of impact as assessed by the variability in face angle, stroke path, and impact spot at the precise moment the putter head contacted the ball.