First- Versus Second-Order Latent Growth Curve Models: Some Insights From Latent State-Trait Theory

First-order latent growth curve models (FGMs) estimate change based on a single observed variable and are widely used in longitudinal research. Despite significant advantages, second-order latent growth curve models (SGMs), which use multiple indicators, are rarely used in practice, and not all aspects of these models are widely understood. In this article, our goal is to contribute to a better understanding of theoretical and practical differences between FGMs and SGMs. We define the latent variables in FGMs and SGMs explicitly on the basis of latent state–trait (LST) theory and discuss insights that arise from this approach. We show that FGMs imply a strict trait-like conception of the construct under study, whereas SGMs allow for both trait and state components. Based on a simulation study and empirical applications to the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977 Radloff, L. S. 1977. The CES–D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1: 385–401. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]) we illustrate that, as an important practical consequence, FGMs yield biased reliability estimates whenever constructs contain state components, whereas reliability estimates based on SGMs were found to be accurate. Implications of the state–trait distinction for the measurement of change via latent growth curve models are discussed.     

Measuring change in career counseling: Validation of the <Emphasis Type="Italic">Career Futures Inventory</Emphasis>-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Revised</Emphasis>

This retrospective chart review study examined the factor structure of the Career Futures Inventory-Revised (CFI-R; Rottinghaus et al. in J Career Assess 20:123–139, 2012) and its utility as a career counseling outcome measure using a sample of 332 clients from a university career center. The CFI-R examines career agency and other career adaptability dimensions germane to clients’ career concerns. Confirmatory factor analysis results supported the proposed factor structure. Changes in CFI-R scale scores are reported for 116 clients who received counseling. The use of the CFI-R as an effectiveness outcome measure for individual, group, and classroom career interventions is addressed.