Formal,nonformal and informal education: A holistic perspective on lifelong learning

This article presents a conceptual framework for understanding the interrelationships among formal, nonformal and informal education. It provides a typology of modes of education across the life span, from childhood to old age. The nonformal education mode is the focus of the article as examples of programs for differing ages, sexes, social classes and ethnic groups are discussed. The third section of the article raises questions regarding the relationship between nonformal education for individual and social change within and across cultural and socio-economic groups. It also discusses the relationship between nonformal and formal education relative to their respective scope and outcomes.The author argues that educational resources must be viewed as interacting modes of emphasis rather than as discrete entities. Hence, all individuals are engaged in learning experiences at all times, from planned, compulsory and intentional to unplanned, voluntary and incidental. It is also argued that nonformal education may be more strongly associated with socio-economic, sex and ethno-religious groups than is formal education. Because of these strong socio-economic and cultural ties, the utility of nonformal education for social, as opposed to individual, change is often restricted. The value of nonformal, as opposed to formal, education for access to the opportunity structure for low socio-economic status populations is also questioned because of the greater legitimacy typically associated with schooling.

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Zusammenfassung Dieser Artikel legt einen konzeptuellen Rahmen für das Verständnis der Wechselbeziehungen zwischen formaler, nicht-formaler und informaler Erziehung vor. Er bietet eine Typologie von Erziehungsweisen, die sich über das ganze Leben erstrecken, von der Kindheit bis zum späten Alter. Im Zentrum des Artikels steht der nicht-formale Erziehungsmodus; Beispiele von Programmen für verschiedene Altersstufen, Geschlechter, soziale Klassen und ethnische Gruppen werden gegeben. Der dritte Teil wirft Fragen der Beziehungen zwischen nicht-formaler Erziehung für individuellen und sozialen Wandel innerhalb kultureller und sozio-ökonomischer Gruppen sowie gruppen-übergreifend auf. Ferner wird das Verhältnis nicht-formaler zu formaler Erziehung in bezug auf ihren jeweiligen Umfang und ihre Ergebnisse besprochen.Der Verfasser führt aus, daß Bildungsressourcen als interaktive Schwerpunktsetzung und nicht als getrennte Ganzheiten anzusehen sind. Somit machen alle Menschen jederzeit ihre Lernerfahrungen, von geplantem, pflichtmäßigem und absichtlichem Lernen bis zu ungeplantem, freiwilligem und zufälligem. Weiterhin wird hervorgehoben, daß nicht-formale Erziehung wohl stärker als formale mit sozio-ökonomischen, ethnisch-religiösen und Geschlechtsgruppen assoziiert ist. Wegen dieser festen sozio-ökonomischen und kulturellen Bindungen ist die Nützlichkeit nicht-formaler Erziehung für sozialen, im Gegensatz zu individuellem, Wandel oft begrenzt. Fraglich erscheint auch der Wert nicht-formaler, imGegensatz zu formaler, Erziehung für den Zugang von Gruppen mit niedrigem sozio-ökonomischen Status zu der Chancenstruktur, weil der Schule allgemein größere Legitimität zugeschrieben wird.

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Résumé Cet article présente un cadre conceptuel pour une meilleure compréhension des interrelations de l'éducation formelle, non formelle et diffuse. Il présente une typologie des differents modes d'éducation qui se succèdent au cours d'une existence, depuis l'enfance jusqu'à la vieillesse. Le mode d'éducation non formelle constitue le thème central de cet article où sont discutés des exemples de programmes en fonction de l'âge, du sexe, de la classe sociale et du groupe ethnique. La troisième partie de l'article soulève des questions sur les relations entre l'éducation non formelle de l'individu et le changement social à l'intérieur des groupes culturels et socio-économiques, mais aussi entre ces groupes. Il traite également de la relation entre l'éducation non formelle et l'éducation formelle en ce qui regarde leur champs d'action respectifs et leur résultats.L'auteur soutient que les resources éducatives doivent être considérées comme des facteurs de mise en valeur réciproque plutôt que comme des discrètes entités. Par suite, tous les individus sont engagés à tout moment dans des expériences d'apprentissage, qu'elles soient concertées, obligatoires et délibérées ou bien involontaires, imprévues et fortuites. L'auteur ajoute que l'éducation non formelle pourrait être plus fortement associée aux groupes socio-économiques, sexuels et ethno-religieux que l'éducation formelle. Ces liens culturels et socio-économiques puissants restreignent souvent, l'efficacité de l'éducation non formelle dans le changement social, contrairement à ce qui se passe pour l'individu. La valeur de l'éducation non formelle — à la différence de l'éducation formelle — comme voie d'accès aux structures de rattrapage pour les populations d'un statut socio-économique défavorisé, est aussi contestée par suite de la légitimité supérieure typiquement associée à la scolarité.

     

面向对象的设计及其在SMIS开发中的应用

本文在简介面向对象技术的基础上，对建立管理信息系统MIS的几种设计方法进行了比较、分析。通过开发一个实际的管理信息系统──仓储管理信息系统SMIS，介绍一种开发MIS的新方法，这就是把面向对象技术中的分析方法运用在MIS的分析与设计中。用PEThRCOAD和EDWARDYOVRDON提出的方法来进行系统需求设计。     

Traveling South: Naples as a Site of Crossing and Migration in the Mediterranean

What sorts of images and narratives of cosmopolitanism are circulating in our cultural discourse? Stories and ideas based on experiences of migration, travel, and exile are considered in relation to the Italian city of Naples, to propose an example of “South-centric” cosmopolitanism. Two different journeys in the Mediterranean, as narrated by Moroccan writer Tahar Ben Jelloun and by Neapolitan film director Vincenzo Marra, engage with the experience of travel through stories that in opposite directions—the first from North Africa to Naples, and the second from Naples to North Africa—cross territories and lines of logic of Northern and Southern boundaries and deal with notions of belonging and homecoming.     

The Impact of Corporate Media News on Market Valuation

This article explores the influence of Web-based corporate reporting on the investors' valuation of companies in the information and communications technology industry. This study compiled 8,111 news items issued in the “Press Releases” tab of the firms' Web sites between January 2003 and April 2005, and analyzed what type of news items affects stock returns. The results show a positive price reaction to news regarding new customers, completion of acquisitions, strategic long-term decisions, and non-technological alliances. In contrast, the results show a negative price reaction to news regarding the launch of new or upgraded products.     

Teachers’ Commitment to the Field and Teacher–Child Interactions in Center-Based Child Care for Toddlers and Three-Year-Olds

Defining teacher characteristics that are associated with effective teaching continues to be a challenging task for the field of early care and education. Much of the research examining classroom quality has focused solely on teacher characteristics such as education and experience; However, teachers’ commitment to the field of early care and education defined as including job satisfaction, perception of the job as a long-term career, education level, years of experience, and membership in a professional organization may be an important characteristic to consider in teachers’ interactions with children in the classroom, especially teachers of very young children. Using the NICHD Study of Early Child Care data at 15, 24, and 36 months, the present paper examines characteristics of early childhood teachers’ commitment to the field and the assessed quality of teacher–child interactions in the classroom. Results indicate that overall, these characteristics significantly predict the quality of teachers’ emotional and cognitive support provided to children as measured by the Observational Record of the Caregiving Environment (ORCE). Characteristics of commitment to the field were stronger predictors of the cognitive support than the emotional support teachers’ provide in classrooms. The current work provides important information to consider in discussions of how characteristics of early childhood teachers influence their interactions with children in classrooms.     

Implementation of a Course Focused on Language and Literacy Within Teacher–Child Interactions: Instructor and Student Perspectives Across Three Institutions of Higher Education

Research suggests that teachers' interactions with preschool-age children have a significant influence on what children learn and the skills they develop. Additional research is needed to systematically determine the types of professional development that can help teachers learn effective teaching practices. This study is part of a larger effort to document the impact of a professional development model in which teachers learn how to implement effective teaching practices operationalized using the CLASS observation measure. A course developed by the National Center for Research on Early Childhood Education (NCRECE) was implemented in three higher education teacher preparation programs. This article describes the process of implementing the course and documents instructor and student perspectives on course delivery, content, and their learning. Results suggest that professional development in the form of a standardized course may be an effective means for presenting content related to language and literacy instruction within the context of information about effective teaching practices. Data from the study also indicate challenges associated with delivering a standardized course within multiple institutions of higher education.     

Assessing Beliefs of Preservice Early Childhood Education Teachers Using Q-Sort Methodology

The purpose of this study was to assess the beliefs of students and faculty in a 4-year birth–kindergarten teacher preparation program using the Teacher Belief Q-Sort (TBQ). Data were collected over one academic year from a total of 63 students, 35 students at the beginning of their coursework and 28 students at the end of their program, completing their student teaching experience. The faculty (n = 8) in the program completed the TBQ to provide a criterion sort as well as to assess the consistency in philosophy across faculty members who teach preservice teachers. Compilations of rankings are presented to describe beliefs related to children, discipline, and teaching practices held by students who are at different points in their education program. Criterion comparison results indicate that student teachers at the end of their education program report beliefs more similar to faculty beliefs than students at the beginning of their education program. However, findings suggest that the student teaching experience does not appear to significantly alter beliefs about children, discipline and teaching practices. These results are discussed in terms of child-directed versus teacher-directed styles of preservice teachers and implications of assessing beliefs for teacher preparation programs.     

对学校体育功能的再认识

学校体育功能的演进与拓展始终是围绕着健身和育人这两条主线进行的,对育人而言,体育主要有教育、健身和娱乐功能;对社会而言,体育主要具有文化和辐射功能。在现代教育和体育思想及理念的影响下,现代学校体育的功能被时代赋予新的意义,其内涵呈现出不断扩展的态势。     

An examination of the relationship between verbal aggressiveness,conflict management strategies,and conflict interaction goals

The purpose of this investigation was to explore the relationship between respondents' trait verbal aggressiveness, conflict management strategies and conflict interaction goals. Data were collected from 105 undergraduate students at a small private affluent southeastern university. Participants were asked to recall a dispute that they had had with a close friend. They completed the OCCI, verbal aggressiveness, and conflict goals measures. Results indicated that verbal aggressiveness was associated in predictable ways with participants' conflict strategies. There also was a substantial and significant negative relationship between verbal aggressiveness and concerns about relational goals during conflicts. These results establish a foundation for future lines of research regarding conflict goals and extend previous investigations regarding verbal aggressiveness.     

Prospects for electronic publication in communication: A survey of potential users

This paper discusses the arguments for and against electronic publication and explores the potential acceptance for an electronic journal in the communication discipline. Using electronic mail, 85 users of a computer communication system were surveyed to determine the factors that would influence their decision to submit research reports to an electronic journal. The survey indicates that a majority of respondents would use an electronic journal to publish research reports and that most viewed publishing as a way to communicate about their work rather than a means for advancing in the field. The survey provides evidence that willingness to electronically publish decreased with higher occupational positions (from Masters student to Associate Professor) with this trend reversing itself at the level of Full Professor.