A Comparison of Knowledge Obsolescence of Graduating Seniors and Practitioners in the Field of Physical Education

Abstract

The issue of defining and measuring professional obsolescence among physical educators is examined through a comparison of the current knowledge base of graduating physical education seniors and physical education practitioners in Pennsylvania. In a previous study, the “Inventory of Recent Knowledge in Physical Education,” a 260-item sample of current knowledge as defined by content experts was developed by the authors and administered by mail to the population of 2,737 male professional members of the public school districts' departments of physical education in Pennsylvania. In the present study, results from the first study were compared with those from an administration of the same instrument to 462 female and male physical education majors graduating from nine Pennsylvania higher education institutions. Both studies employed multiple-matrix procedures for item-person sampling and data analysis. An analysis of the results for both groups showed essentially similar performance profiles on the Inventory. Average scores of the two groups tended to be low and neither met preestablished minimum standards for defining up-to-date or nonobsolete performance. These results point to a clear conflict between what experts think up-to-date persons in the field of physical education should know and the knowledge performance of practitioners and students.     

Differential Effects of Three Teachers Over a Unit of Instruction

The purpose of this study was to describe the effects of three teachers on psychomotor, affective, and cognitive outcomes over a 15-lesson volleyball unit. Three intact middle school physical education classes were used. Pre- and posttests were administered for the overhead set, forearm pass, and serve psychomotor skills. A semantic differential test with four affective dimensions and a written test on the rules, strategies, and mechanics of volleyball were also administered pre- and posttest. Data on instructional characteristics were obtained using academic learning time (ALT-PE); observation system for content development (OSCD-PE), and a content analysis of lessons.

The following were key aspects of the results: (a) Teachers differed in their approaches to the content of the unit more than in the characteristics of their instruction as determined through observational data; (b) teachers differed in respect to the psychomotor skills for which they were able to produce statistically significant student gain; (c) the skill level of students played a major role in psychomotor outcomes; (d) affective measures started high and remained high from pre- to posttest with significant change occurring positively with the low-skilled in one measure; (d) cognitive learning was significant from pre- to posttest in rules and mechanics but not in strategies. Instructional characteristics, as described in this study, did not change from skill to skill, but student learning did. This led the authors to conclude that the instrumentation for instructional variables was not sensitive to differences in the way individual skills were handled by individual teachers.     

Comparison of Hydrostatic Weighing at Residual Volume and Total Lung Capacity in Children

Abstract

The influence of perceptions of the motivational climate and perceived ability on situational motivation and the physical activity behavior of 213 male and 229 female adolescent physical education students (M age= 12.56 years; SD = 0.96) was examined over a 3-day period. A significant age by gender interaction emerged, with physical activity declining from the sixth to eighth grade. The decline was more pronounced among female than male students. Perceptions of a mastery climate were strongly related to more self-determined forms of situational motivation. In contrast, perceptions of a performance climate were strongly related to less self-determined forms of situational motivation. Results of a hierarchical regression analysis revealed gender, perceived ability, and perceptions of a mastery climate to explain a significant amount of variance in physical activity. These findings suggest that promoting a mastery oriented motivational climate in physical education will foster self-determined situational motivation and physical activity.     

The Reliability of Distance Run Tests for Children in Grades K—4

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine test–retest reliability for the 1-mile, 3/4-mile, and 1/2-mile distance run/walk tests for children in Grades K—4. Fifty-one intact physical education classes were randomly assigned to one of the three distance run conditions. A total of 1,229 (621 boys, 608 girls) complied the test–retests in the fall (October), with 1,050 of these students (543 boys, 507 girls) repeating the tests in the spring (May). Results indicated that the 1-mile run/walk distance, as recommended for young children in most national test batteries, has acceptable intraclass reliability (.83 < R < .90) for both boys and girls in Grades 3 and 4, has minimal (fall) to acceptable (spring) reliability for Grade 2 students (.70 < R < .83), but is not reliable for children in Grades K and 1 (.34 < R < .56). The 1/2 mile was the only distance meeting minimal reliability standards for boys and girls in Grades K and 1 (.73 < R < .82). Results also indicated that reliability estimates remained fairly stable across gender and age groups from the fall to spring testing periods, with the exception of the noticeably improved values for Grade 2 students on the 1-mile run/walk test. Criterion-referenced reliability (P, percent agreement) was also estimated relative to Physical Best and Fitnessgram run/walk standards. Reliability coefficients for all age group standards were acceptable to high (.70 < P < .95), except for Fitnessgram standards for 5-year-old girls on the 1-mile test for both fall and spring and for 6-year-old boys and girls on the 1-mile test administered in the spring.     

Aerobic Capacity in Black Adolescent Girls

Abstract

Our purpose was to determine the aerobic capacities (VO₂max) of a group of black female adolescents (age = 11.4 ? 15.8 years) randomly chosen from a single urban school. Of 91 girls selected, 64 performed an incremental treadmill running test to volitional exhaustion and achieved VO₂max as determined from expired gas measures. Other measures included height (m), weight (kg), and calf and triceps skinfolds (for % fat estimates). Girls were also asked whether they had achieved menarche. VO₂max averaged 37.3 ± 6.2 ml·kg^?1 ·min^?1 and was significantly correlated (r[62]) with height (?.32, p < .01), body mass index (?.63, p < .001), and % fat (?.65, p < .001) but not with age (?.16, p > .10). Postmenarchal girls were significantly taller and older than premenarchal girls. Contrary to previous studies, the girls' VO₂max values were not related to biological age. Our subjects' aerobic capacity values averaged 14% less than those of nonblack U.S. female adolescents previously reported in the literature. This difference in VO₂max was primarily a function of body weight. Study implications support the possibility that overweight in adult black women may originate prior to or during early adolescence. Future longitudinal studies should be designed to investigate the effects of aerobic fitness on cardiovascular risk factor reduction in black adolescent girls.     

Changing students' attitudes towards risky motor tasks: An application of the IZOF model

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention programme in the physical education setting designed to change attitudes and emotions triggered by potentially risky motor tasks. The individual zones of optimal functioning (IZOF) model was used as a theoretical framework for the study. Italian male and female high school students (N = 84) took part in a 12 lesson intervention and in test?–?retest sessions. The assessment was conducted using the Motor Activity Anxiety Test to measure the students' approach-avoidance attitudes in the face of physical education tasks purported to engender strong emotional reactions. An idiosyncratic emotional profile was also implemented using a list of pleasant/unpleasant emotional adjectives. Two experimental groups were involved in the learning and performing of several potentially risky, highly emotion-arousing tasks, while two control groups were engaged in low-risk team sports. According to the hypothesis of the study, the programme was effective in decreasing the students' avoidance tendencies towards thrilling tasks and in increasing optimal?–?pleasant emotions. Our findings also demonstrated the feasibility and utility of applying the IZOF model to the context of physical education.     

Estimated maturity status and perceptions of adult autonomy support in youth soccer players

Abstract

In this study, we examined the relations between biological maturity status, body mass index, age, and perceptions of adult autonomy support in the context of youth soccer. A total of 70 female and 43 male soccer players, aged 9 – 15 years, completed three adult-specific versions (i.e. mother, father, coach) of the perceived autonomy support subscale from the Interpersonal Style Scale. The participants' percent predicted adult stature was used as an estimate of biological maturity status. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that advanced maturity status in male players predicted lower perceptions of autonomy support from the coach. Maturity status was unrelated to perceptions of autonomy support from the coach in female soccer players, and paternal and maternal autonomy support in male and female players. Age and body mass index were unrelated to perceptions of adult (i.e. coach, mother, father) autonomy support in male and female players.     

Girls' and boys' perceptions of physical education teachers' feedback: Effects on performance and psychological responses

Abstract

In this study, we examined the perceptions of physical education (PE) teachers' feedback patterns with female and male high school students (n = 325). Eight physical education teachers (4 females and 4 males) were involved. We examined (a) whether teachers' feedback was perceived differently by boys and girls, and how the sex of the teacher influenced these perceptions, and (b) the effects of types of feedback (praise, no response-successful, encouragement, technical information, criticism, no response-unsuccessful, and teacher's invested time) on students' perceived competence, effort, enjoyment, and their PE performance. A multivariate analysis revealed an interaction between teacher and student gender on perceptions of teacher feedback. Hierarchical regression analyses highlighted that the perceived feedback significantly predicted students' perceptions of competence (ΔR ² = 0.088), effort (ΔR ² = 0.119), enjoyment (ΔR ² = 0.085), and their PE performance (ΔR ² = 0.039) after accounting for the gender of the students and teachers and the students' initial PE performance. The perceptions of praise and teachers' invested time were positively linked with the dependent variables, whereas encouragement and technical information and criticism were negatively linked. The findings are discussed in terms of teaching effectiveness and gender equity.     

Ball launch conditions for skilled golfers using drivers of different lengths in an indoor testing facility

Abstract

The displacement of the golf ball struck by a driving club is affected by several player characteristics and equipment parameters and their interrelationships. Some modelling and simulation studies have shown a relationship between shaft length and clubhead speed, supported by a few experimental studies. The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between driver length and ball launch conditions in an indoor test facility using a ball launch monitor. Nine males considered to be skilled golfers participated in the study. Four driving clubs of total length 117, 119, 124, and 132 cm were assembled from commercially available components and were used to strike golf shots while initial ball velocity, backspin rate, and launch angles were measured. Statistical analysis identified a significant difference in initial launch speed due to club length, a significant difference between participants, but no difference between the trials for a given golfer. A positive trend was noted between backspin and launch angle for all four clubs, and significant inverse associations between initial launch speed and backspin rate and launch angle. However, the combined launch conditions associated with increasing length were not considered optimal, with uncontrolled swingweight and moment of inertia effects considered to be limiting factors.