The rising cost of private higher education

The report illustrates the informational and analytical basis on which one high-cost institution—Yale University—sets its annual tuition levels and long-term pricing policies. The rising cost of private higher education in general, and of a Yale education in particular, is examined in a context that takes into account historical trends, economic data (price and income inflation), the financial condition of the institution, comparative cost data from other schools, and studies of the impact of cost on enrollment. The results suggest that current educational costs, despite their recent rapid increases, are not significantly above historical levels (after adjusting for inflation), are not unfair to students, are affordable to most families, and are in line with the costs of other private institutions. No serious impact on the quality or diversity of the student body was discovered.     

Bilingualism and mathematical reasoning in English as a second language

This paper examines the ability of bilingual children to reason deductively in mathematics. In particular, the findings of a recent study of bilingual Punjabi, Mirpuri, Italian and Jamaican 11–13 year old children growing up in England are reported. It is found that first language competence is an important factor in the child's ability to reason in mathematics in English as a second language. This gives considerable support to theories which assert that a cognitively and academically beneficial form of bilingualism can only be achieved on the basis of adequately developed first language skills. However for both English monolingual and bilingual children knowledge of logical connectives in English is a crucial factor. It is suggested that published weaknesses in mathematics found among certain Asian and West Indian pupils may well be due to language factors. Furthermore there are strong cultural forces which predispose differential performance among boys and girls. The implications of the findings for a relevant mathematical education for bilingual children are discussed.     

Effects of Response Cost Contingencies on Thumbsucking and Related Behaviours in the Classroom

Thumbsucking and two related behaviours (head rubbing and object mouthing) were observed in two 7‐year‐old girls in classroom settings. Using a mixed multiple baseline across subjects and ABAB design, a response cost procedure was applied by the classroom teachers to the thumbsucking behaviour. The procedure reduced thumbsucking, and as long as it continued to be applied with one of the children her thumbsucking behaviour remained at low levels. Data obtained on the other two behaviours were consistent with but did not provide definitive support for spill‐over effects for head rubbing and behavioural contrast effects for object mouthing. In addition to demonstrating the effects of the treatment procedure, these results emphasise the importance of using multiple measures in applied studies of punishment and self‐stimulatory behaviours.

     

Disparate Impact and Teacher Certification

To date, African–American teacher candidates certification rate has been significantly below that of non-Hispanic white candidates, and this differential has been consistent across all field tests and operational assessments. At issue is the source of the disparate impact observed. The article first discusses the distinction between disparate impact and bias in assessment. This is followed by a discussion of the five broad categories of sources of disparate impact (substantially differential rates of certification by subgroup): (1) demographic differences (such as candidates years of teaching experience or the number of advanced degrees earned), (2) recruitment differences (the system of incentives to volunteer for certification and other factors related to recruitment) that may have resulted in samples of African–American and non-Hispanic white candidates who differ systematically in teaching performance, (3) contextual differences in the conditions under which candidates teach (for example, the level of administrative, technical, or collegial support or other contextual factors that distinguish urban schools (where the majority of African–American teachers teach) from rural and suburban schools, (4) biases or deficiencies in the assessment process itself (for example, a standard of practice that privileges certain forms of teaching over others, exercises that contain biases that either disadvantage African–American candidates or, advantage white candidates, and deficiencies in training materials and the training of scorers), differential and (5) actual differences in teaching performance that have resulted from unequal educational opportunity, discrimination, and other social and historical forces. The evidence collected and analyzed to date by the National Boards Technical Analysis Group is reported, and other studies and analyses planned for the future are mentioned.     

The scientific foundations and associated injury risks of early soccer specialisation

ABSTRACT

Early specialisation is characterised by formal participation in a single sport at the exclusion of others. Limited data are available to support this approach in the development of soccer players who attain elite status later in life. Of growing concern is the associated increased risk of injury and suggestions that single sport specialisation is a risk factor independent of age, growth, biological maturation and training volumes. In the United Kingdom, elite soccer organisations have recently adopted an early sport specialisation approach following the introduction of the Elite Player Performance Plan. A key tenet of this programme is increased opportunities for training through a marked rise in the specified on-pitch hours per week. The accumulation of high training hours may be less of a relevant marker for success, and the impact of such a significant increase in training volume for young athletes who are experiencing a range of growth and maturational processes is currently unknown. This critical commentary includes an evidence-based discussion of the effectiveness of early sport specialisation and the potential injury risks associated with such programmes placing a specific focus on elite male youth soccer players. Available data indicate that modifications to the existing Elite Player Performance Plan framework could enhance players’ development and reduce injury risk. Proposed alterations include reduced volume of soccer-specific training at key stages of growth and maturation and guidelines for the provision of a greater variety of physical activities that are integrated within other programme components.     

Computer-based microworlds: A bridge between constructivism and direct instruction

The field of instructional technology is characterized by its products, such as instructional media, and its processes, such as instructional design. Over the past 50 years, the process of instructional technology has been shaped by advances in learning and instructional theory. Much of the development work to date has been associated with direct instruction or instruction based largely on the application of behavioral and neobehavioral principles. In contrast, constructivism, a faction within cognitive psychology associated with Piagetian learning theory, is characterized by discovery and experiential learning. Constructivists have sought to tap the computational power of modern microcomputers to create computer microworlds, such as those found in LOGO, in which learners can experience and appropriate sophisticated ideas from (but not limited to) the domains of science and mathematics. Proponents of constructivism and direct instruction usually are viewed in opposition to one another. It is suggested here that each has something to learn from the other, and that computer microworlds offer a platform for collaboration.     

Bachelor/Master in der Lehrerbildung — Potential für Innovation oder ihre Verhinderung?

Zusammenfassung Inzwischen liegen verschiedene aktuelle Modelle zu Bachelor/Master in der Lehrerbildung vor. Um vergleichend ihr Innovationspotential abzusch?tzen, lassen sich historische und berufssoziologische Vergewisserungen heranziehen, und es ist fruchtbar, eingangs professionstheoretische Kriterien für eine Reform der Lehrerbildung zu benennen. Befragt werden die Modelle anschlie?end nach ihrem Beitrag zur St?rkung des p?dagogischen Professionsbezuges, zur St?rkung reflexiver Verwissenschaftlichung und zur Restrukturierung des Curriculums. Die Sichtung der Modelle macht deutlich, dass die mit einer Restrukturierung der Lehrerbildung verbundenen Chancen durch die bis jetzt vorgelegten Konzepte noch unzureichend genutzt werden.

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Summary Bachelor and Master Qualifications in Teacher Training — Potential or hindrance for innovation? Over the past few years a series of different models for two-phased teacher training programs leading to the qualifications Bachelor and Master have developed in German higher education. Historical considerations and sociological concepts on work can be drawn on to analyze the comparative advantages of the different models. This paper also refers to theories of professionalism for criteria by which to evaluate a reform of teacher training. Finally, the models’ contribution to the strengthening of pedagogic relevance to the professional needs of students, to the strengthening of their reflexivity and to the restructuring of the training curriculum will be assessed. A look at the models shows clear enough that the chances for innovation, which emerge from restructuring efforts, have not been exploited sufficiently in the current concepts.

     

Seriously considering play: Designing interactive learning environments based on the blending of microworlds,simulations, and games

Little attention has been given to the psychological and sociological value of play despite its many advantages to guiding the design of interactive multimedia learning environments for children and adults. This paper provides a brief overview of the history, research, and theory related to play. Research from education, psychology, and anthropology suggests that play is a powerful mediator for learning throughout a person's life. The time has come to couple the ever increasing processing capabilities of computers with the advantages of play. The design of hybrid interactive learning environments is suggested based on the constructivist concept of a microworld and supported with elements of both games and simulations.The author thanks Luther Rotto and Tillman Ragan for their comments on an earlier draft of this paper. He also thanks Ron Oliver and the faculty and students at Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia, for their comments and feedback of this work presented during his visit in the summer of 1995. Special thanks go to Cindy Ellington and Holly Ward for their participation and cooperation in various aspects of the project in which children designed their own educational computer games.