Supporting Cognitive Design: Lessons from Human-computer Interaction and Computer-mediated Learning

Cognitive engineering has led to a consideration of the capabilities and limitations of users in relation to the products of system design. However, there has not been a similar recognition of human limitations in the process of design. One way to improve the products of system design is by making improvements in the process of design and, in particular, by addressing the limitations of designers through scaffolding with the technology that is the object of design. To do this we need to identify what we know about the process of designing for computer-mediated learning systems, and to build an understanding of how the design process might benefit from cognitive strategies and computer technology. Here we survey various approaches to support the design process, in order to identify approaches and opportunities that may inform both fields. Specific suggestions include heuristics for design, and scaffolding the design process through support tools. © IFIP, published by Kluwer Academic Publishers     

Behavior of Infants with Iron-Deficiency Anemia

This study tested the hypothesis that infants with iron-deficiency anemia show behaviors, such as increased proximity to caregivers, increased wariness or hesitance, and decreased activity, that could contribute to “functional isolation.” The behavior of 52 Costa Rican 12- to 23-month-old infants with iron-deficiency anemia was contrasted with that of 139 comparison group infants with better iron status during free play and mental and motor testing and in the home. Infants with iron-deficiency anemia maintained closer contact with caregivers; showed less pleasure and delight; were more wary, hesitant, and easily tired; made fewer attempts at test items; were less attentive to instructions and demonstrations; and were less playful. Adult behavior also differed. The results indicate that iron-deficiency anemia in infancy is associated with alterations in affect and activity, suggesting that functional isolation is a useful framework for understanding poorer developmental outcome in iron-deficiency anemia, the world's most common single nutrient deficiency.     

Exploring the Functionality of Visual and Non-Visual Strategies in Solving Rotation Problems

This article deals with the solving of rotation problems, and shows that there is an alternative to using mental rotations or their encoding into verbal terms: namely using geometrical properties. The idea is consistent with the theory which distinguishes between visual and analytical individuals, but uses the construct strategies instead of the construct preferred processing mode. Moreover, contrary to many researchers who refer to this distinction, but who often use it to classify students, this researcher introduces a new parameter, namely the nature of the task. The article presents the analysis of the functionality and effectiveness of the different kind of strategies as a function of the task's characteristics. The research, dealing not with individual traits but with solving strategies, offers information that could be helpful for the improvement of geometry teaching.     

Simulating the Use of Disclosed Items in Computerized Adaptive Testing

Regular use of questions previously made available to the public (i.e., disclosed items) may provide one way to meet the requirement for large numbers of questions in a continuous testing environment, that is, an environment in which testing is offered at test taker convenience throughout the year rather than on a few prespecified test dates. First it must be shown that such use has effects on test scores small enough to be acceptable. In this study simulations are used to explore the use of disclosed items under a worst-case scenario which assumes that disclosed items are always answered correctly. Some item pool and test designs were identified in which the use of disclosed items produces effects on test scores that may be viewed as negligible.     

Perceived Rates of Return to Higher Education: an international review and comparison

The present paper attempts to assess the link between economic factors and the private demand for higher education through an investigation of the findings of relevant studies. After an examination of the various methodologies adopted by different authors in the estimation of the perceived rate of return to higher education, the main findings of available studies conducted in several countries (UK, the Philippines, Egypt, Hong Kong, and Cyprus) are discussed and compared. The main conclusions drawn from this comparison are the following: First, the perceived rates of return to higher education are, for the most part, very realistic, indicating an accurate perception of the economic benefits of higher education on the part of students. Second, non‐economic factors, such as gender, ability and socio‐economic background, appear to constitute strong influences on the private demand for higher education, which educational policy makers should take into account, along with the economic variables. Finally, it is suggested that the methodology discussed in the present paper can be used in the future to estimate the perceived profitability of higher studies at different institutions and countries offering higher education.     

Class size in the first years at school: a New Zealand perspective on the international literature

During the 1980s, topics evident in the class size research included class size and children’s achievement, children’s behavior and affect, outcomes for different groups of children, teacher satisfaction and stress, the organization of instruction, and cost effectiveness. A New Zealand review tracing through the approaches to class size research indicated that the research methods used to investigate class size had become increasingly complex. In the 1990s, these topics continue to be addressed, with an increasing emphasis on the features and impact over time of smaller classes, and on the economics of schooling. In New Zealand in the late 1980s, a 1 : 20 teacher to pupil ratio policy was introduced for junior classes. The current staffing ratio in junior classes is 1 : 23. This summary review of the literature on class size highlights some issues and complexities arising from the international research and research within the New Zealand context.     

Note on Sources of Sampling Variability in Science Performance Assessments

In 1993, we reported in Journal of Educational Measurement that task-sampling variability was the Achilles' heel of science performance assessment. To reduce measurement error, tasks needed to be stratified before sampling, sampled in large number, or possibly both. However, Cronbach, Linn, Brennan, & Haertel (1997) pointed out that a task-sampling interpretation of a large person x task variance component might be incorrect. Task and occasion sampling are confounded because tasks are typically given on only a single occasion. The person x task source of measurement error is then confounded with the pt x occasion source. If pto variability accounts for a substantial part of the commonly observed pt interaction, stratifying tasks into homogenous subsets—a cost-effective way of addressing task sampling variability—might not increase accuracy. Stratification would not address the pro source of error. Another conclusion reported in JEM was that only direct observation (DO) and notebook (NB) methods of collecting performance assessment data were exchangeable; computer simulation, short-answer, and multiple-choice methods were not. However, if Cronbach et al. were right, our exchangeability conclusion might be incorrect. After re-examining and re-analyzing data, we found support for Conbach et al. We concluded that large task-sampling variability was due to both the person x task interaction and person x task x occasion interaction. Moreover, we found that direct observation, notebook and computer simulation methods were equally exchangeable, but their exchangeability was limited by the volatility of student performances across tasks and occasions.