EVALUATING COMPENSATORY EDUCATION: OVER WHAT PERIOD OF TIME SHOULD ACHIEVEMENT BE MEASURED?

An assumption fundamental to compensatory education is that greater achievement can change the academic future of disadvantaged students, which may in turn enhance their "life chances." Therefore, one of the goals of compensatory education is to increase the achievement of disadvantaged students. To change students' futures, this increase in achievement should be evident subsequent to participation in a compensatory-education program. At a minimum, an increase in achievement should persist over the summer following a school-year program. Evaluations of compensatory education in general, however, and of Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in particular, have not included measures of sustained achievement. Instead, judgments of program success have been based on students' achievement during the school year: that is, on a spring posttest score adjusted in some way for the preceding fall pretest score.     

The Women's Movement in Canadian and Australian Education: From liberation and sexism to boys and social justice

This article provides a comparative analysis of the ways in which the women's movement was able to effect change in educational policy and practice in Australia and Canada between 1970 and 2000, drawing on interviews and document analysis in both countries. While the movement in both countries drew on similar international texts and conversations, it had more sustained state support in education in Australia. Despite the different degrees of institutionalisation, similar trends emerged in both countries. There was more public visibility for the movement in the 1970s and 1980s than in the 1990s, and a shift in discourse from 'women's liberation' and 'sexism' to boys and social justice. It is argued that the movement continues to be a creative source of ideas and change even when it is less visible and less formally represented, and that differences in outcomes are not easily linked to differences in institutionalisation. In both countries, major change has occurred, although the demands of the movement have not been realised.     

Mentoring Women Doctoral Students: What Counselor Educators and Supervisors Can Do

Based on the experiences of two women completing their university doctoral programs, these case studies offer information about the components of mentoring relationships that facilitate women's performance in higher education.     

An Attributional Approach to Counselor Supervision

The supervision process is examined from an attributional perspective. Counselor supervision is conceptualized as an interactional process in which trainees learn to describe and manage cause-effect relationships. Attribution theory from the social psychological literature is reviewed, and common biases and errors in the attribution process are discussed in terms of their relationship to supervision. Finally, several interventions are proposed to help supervisors minimize the influence of these attributional biases on their own and their trainees' perceptions and behaviors.     

Follow-Up Surveys for Counselor Preparation Program Graduates and Their Employers

Ratings were obtained for item-inclusion importance for counselor preparation program follow-up surveys for program graduates and their employers. Survey elements are suggested.     

The Effect of Touch on Perception of Counselors

The authors examine observers' perceptions of counselors using touch as part of the client-counselor interaction. Results indicate that touch conveys a sense of caring but does not encourage understanding or client self-disclosure.     

Learning from Their Mistakes: Glimpses of symbolic functioning in two-and-a-half to three-year-old children

In this cross-sectional study done in the United States, 19 female and 17 male children ( N =36) ranging in age from 30- to 36-months ( M =33 months, 8 days) were presented with two different search and retrieval type problems to solve. Examination of the data revealed clear age-related differences between children who fluidly and efficiently problem solve using symbolically mediated knowledge and those who do not. Younger children tended to rely on a trial and error, motor-based strategy for solving the problems presented, whereas older children consistently used symbolic strategies. This conclusion supports findings from other similar studies. Further analyses of the data, however, revealed an interesting phenomenon in the form of a patterned, non-random error. This error pattern, a perseverative-type error, and the other problem-solving strategies used by the two-year-olds and young threes in this study offer insight into how young children become efficient users of symbols. Facilitating the development of symbolic problem solving in young children is discussed.     

周恩来的外交智慧

苍蝇总要往厕所跑 一个外国记者问周恩来总理：“你们一直对外都说中国好,中国好。既然中国好,那林彪为什么还要往外国跑呢？”周总理没有说话,只是走到窗前打开窗子,意味深长地说：“你看,外面的空气这么好,但苍蝇为什么总要往厕所跑呢？”