An investigation of the five-factor model of personality and coping behaviour in sport

Abstract

Coping strategies are important for performance in sport and individual differences may contribute to the coping strategies adopted by athletes. In this study, we explored the main and interactive effects of the big five personality dimensions on sport-related coping and compared personality profiles of discrete groups of athletes. Altogether, 253 athletes (mean age 21.1 years, s = 3.7) completed the NEO-FFI (Costa & McCrae, 1992 Costa, P. T. and McCrae, R. R. 1992. Revised NEO personality inventory and NEO five-factor inventory: Professional manual, Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.  [Google Scholar]), and the Coping Function Questionnaire for Sport (Kowalski & Crocker, 2001 Kowalski, K. C. and Crocker, P. R. E. 2001. Development and validation of the Coping Function Questionnaire for adolescents in sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 23: 136–155. [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]). Results showed that extraverted athletes, who were also emotionally stable and open to new experiences (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of problem-focused coping strategies. Conscientious athletes (main effect), and athletes displaying high levels of extraversion, openness, and agreeableness (a three-way interaction effect), reported a greater use of emotion-focused coping strategies, and athletes with low levels of openness, or high levels of neuroticism (main effects), reported a greater use of avoidance coping strategies. Different personality characteristics were observed between higher-level and lower-level athletes, between men and women athletes, and between individual and team sport athletes. These findings suggest that the five-factor model of personality can help distinguish various levels of athletic involvement and can help identify the coping strategies athletes are likely to adopt during participation.     

Concurrent validity and test–retest reliability of a global positioning system (GPS) and timing gates to assess sprint performance variables

Abstract

There has been no previous investigation of the concurrent validity and reliability of the current 5 Hz global positioning system (GPS) to assess sprinting speed or the reliability of integrated GPS–accelerometer technology. In the present study, we wished to determine: (1) the concurrent validity and reliability of a GPS and timing gates to measure sprinting speed or distance, and (2) the reliability of proper accelerations recorded via GPS–accelerometer integration. Nineteen elite youth rugby league players performed two over-ground sprints and were simultaneously assessed using GPS and timing gates. The GPS measurements systematically underestimated both distance and timing gate speed. The GPS measurements were reliable for all variables of distance and speed (coefficient of variation [CV] = 1.62% to 2.3%), particularly peak speed (95% limits of agreement [LOA] = 0.00 ± 0.8 km · h^?1; CV = 0.78%). Timing gates were more reliable (CV = 1% to 1.54%) than equivalent GPS measurements. Accelerometer measurements were least reliable (CV = 4.69% to 5.16%), particularly for the frequency of proper accelerations (95% LOA = 1.00 ± 5.43; CV = 14.12%). Timing gates and GPS were found to reliably assess speed and distance, although the validity of the GPS remains questionable. The error found in accelerometer measurements indicates the limits of this device for detecting changes in performance.     

Peak power output provides the most reliable measure of performance in prolonged intermittent-sprint cycling

Abstract

The aims of this study were to determine the reliability of an intermittent-sprint cycling protocol and to determine the efficacy of one practice session on main trials. Eleven men, moderately trained team-sport athletes, completed three visits to the laboratory involving a graded-exercise test and practice session and two trials of a Cycling Intermittent-Sprint Protocol separated by three days. Data for practice and main trials were analysed using typical error of measurement, intra-class correlation and least-products regression to determine reliability. Typical error of measurement (expressed as a coefficient of variation) and intra-class correlation for peak power output from all 20 sprints for trial 1 and trial 2 were 2.9 ± 12.8% (95% confidence interval: 2.0–5.0%) and 0.96 (95% confidence interval: 0.85–0.99), respectively. Typical errors of measurement and intra-class correlation for mean power output for all 20 sprints for trials 1 and 2 were 4.2 ± 11.9% (95% confidence interval: 2.9–7.4%) and 0.90 (95% confidence interval: 0.66–0.97), respectively. The results suggest that peak power output provides a more reliable measure than mean power output. The Cycling Intermittent-Sprint Protocol provides reliable measures of intermittent-sprint performance.     

Quantifying stroke coordination during the breathing action in front-crawl swimming using an instantaneous net drag force profile

Abstract

This study used both an instantaneous net drag force profile and a symmetry timing to evaluate the effect of the breathing action on stroke coordination. Twenty elite swimmers completed a total of six randomised front-crawl towing trials: (i) three breathing trials and (ii) three non-breathing trials. The net drag force was measured using an assisted towing device mounted upon a Kistler force platform, and this equipment towed the swimmer at a constant speed. The net drag force profile was used to create a stroke symmetry index for each swimming trial. Analysis using the symmetry indices identified that the majority of participants demonstrated an asymmetrical instantaneous net drag force stroke profile in both the breathing and non-breathing conditions, despite no significant differences in the time from finger-tip entry to finger-tip exit. Within the breathing condition, the faster swimmers compared to the slower swimmers demonstrated a lesser percentage of overlap between stroke phases on their breathing stroke side. During the non-breathing condition, the faster participants compared to the slower swimmers recorded a reduction in the percentage of overlap between stroke phases and less duration in the underwater stroke on their breathing stroke side. This study identified that the majority of participants demonstrated an asymmetrical net drag force profile within both conditions; however, asymmetry was less prevalent when examining with only the timing symmetry index.     

Visual Search and Biological Motion Perception in Tennis

Purpose

The purposes of this study were to: (a) examine the effect of experience and goal constraints (speed, accuracy) on kicking patterns; (b) determine if effective striking mass was independent of ankle velocity at impact; and (c) determine the accuracy of kicks relative to independent factors.

Method

Twenty participants were recruited to kick at 3 different velocities with and without an accuracy requirement. Multivariate analysis of variance determined if relative timing of joint angular velocities changed during the kick. Chi-square analysis determined if calculated effective mass was independent of ankle velocity at impact. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine differences in absolute constant error and variable error according to independent factors.

Results

Results indicated that experience and speed affect absolute timing of joint velocities with no changes in the relative timing of peak joint velocity across independent factors. Chi-square analysis indicated that calculated effective mass is not independent of ankle velocity. ANOVA indicated that experienced performers displayed less variability error than did inexperienced performers.

Conclusion

It was concluded that: (a) Experience, velocity, and accuracy do not affect the relative timing of kicks; (b) kickers trade ankle velocity at impact for greater effective striking mass and ball velocity; and (c) variability in ball placement is affected by experience.     

Effect of suspension systems on the physiological and psychological responses to sub-maximal biking on simulated smoothand bumpy tracks

Abstract

The aim of this study was to compare the physiological and psychological responses of cyclists riding on a hard tail bicycle and on a full suspension bicycle. Twenty males participated in two series of tests. A test rig held the front axle of the bicycle steady while the rear wheel rotated against a heavy roller with bumps (or no bumps) on its surface. In the first series of tests, eight participants (age 19 – 27 years, body mass 65 – 82 kg) were tested on both the full suspension and hard tail bicycles with and without bumps fitted to the roller. The second series of test repeated the bump tests with a further six participants (age 22 – 31 years, body mass 74 – 94 kg) and also involved an investigation of familiarization effects with the final six participants (age 21 – 30 years, body mass 64 – 80 kg). Heart rate, oxygen consumption ([Vdot]O₂), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and comfort were recorded during 10 min sub-maximal tests. Combined data for the bumps tests show that the full suspension bicycle was significantly different (P < 0.001) from the hard tail bicycle on all four measures. Oxygen consumption, heart rate and RPE were lower on average by 8.7 (s = 3.6) ml · kg^?1 · min^?1, 32.1 (s = 12.1) beats · min^?1 and 2.6 (s = 2.0) units, respectively. Comfort scores were higher (better) on average by 1.9 (s = 0.8) units. For the no bumps tests, the only statistically significant difference (P = 0.008) was in [Vdot]O₂, which was lower for the hard tail bicycle by 2.2 (s = 1.7) ml · kg^?1 · min^?1. The results indicate that the full suspension bicycle provides a physiological and psychological advantage over the hard tail bicycle during simulated sub-maximal exercise on bumps.     

Reliability and construct validity of soccer skills tests that measure passing,shooting, and dribbling

Abstract

In this study, we examined the reliability and construct validity of new soccer skills tests. Twenty soccer players (10 professional and 10 recreational) repeated trials of passing, shooting, and dribbling skills on different days. Passing and shooting skills required players to kick a moving ball, delivered at constant speed, towards one of four randomly determined targets. Dribbling required players to negotiate seven cones over 20 m. Each trial consisted of 28 passes, 8 shots, and 10 dribbles. Ball speed, precision, and success were determined for all tests using video analysis. Systematic bias was small (<9% in all measures) and all outcome measures were similar between trials. Test–retest reliability statistics were as follows: ball speed (passing, shooting, dribbling; coefficient of variation [CV]: 6.5%, 6.9%, 2.4%; ratio limits of agreement [RLOA]: 0.958 ×/÷ 1.091, 0.990 ×/÷ 1.107, 0.993 ×/÷ 1.039), precision (passing, shooting, dribbling; CV: 10.0%, 23.5%, 4.6%; RLOA: 0.956 ×/÷ 1.147, 1.030 ×/÷ 1.356, 1.000 ×/÷ 1.068), and success (passing, shooting, dribbling; CV: 11.7%, 14.4%, 2.2%; RLOA: 1.017 ×/÷ 1.191, 0.913 ×/÷ 1.265, 0.996 ×/÷ 1.035). Professional players performed better than recreational players in at least one outcome measure for all skills. These findings demonstrate the reliability and validity of new soccer skill protocols.     

Gender Role and Sport Competition Anxiety: A Re-examination

Abstract

The present study tested whether there were significant sport competition anxiety differences among sex-typed, androgynous, and cross sex-typed subjects and whether these differences were consistent with gender schema theory (Bem, 1981b).

Approximately 700 subjects were administered the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and, using two methods of scoring, 216 subjects were selected because of being either sex-typed (masculine males, feminine females), cross sex-typed (masculine females, feminine males) or androgynous (males and females who have strong masculine and feminine dimensions). Each subject was tested for competition anxiety using the Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT). A one-way ANOVA of SCAT scores by group was significant, F(5,210) = 6.52, p < .001. Post-hoc analysis revealed that feminine females had significantly more competitive trait anxiety than all other groups and androgynous females were more anxious than masculine males (p < .05). The results are discussed in terms of gender schema theory.     

Learning from demonstrations: the role of visual search during observational learning from video and point-light models

In this study, we examined the visual search strategies used during observation of video and point-light display models. We also assessed the relative effectiveness of video and point-light models in facilitating the learning of task outcomes and movement patterns. Twenty-one female novice soccer players were divided equally into video, point-light display and no-model (control) groups. Participants chipped a soccer ball onto a target area from which radial and variable error scores were taken. Kinematic data were also recorded using an opto-electrical system. Both a pre- and post-test were performed, interspersed with three periods of acquisition and observation of the model. A retention test was completed 2 days after the post-test. There was a significant main effect for test period for outcome accuracy and variability, but observation of a model did not facilitate outcome-based learning. Participants observing the models acquired a global movement pattern that was closer to that of the model than the controls, although they did not acquire the local relations in the movement pattern, evidenced by joint range of motion and angle-angle plots. There were no significant differences in learning between the pointlight display and video groups. The point-light display model group used a more selective visual search pattern than the video model group, while both groups became more selective with successive trials and observation periods. The results are discussed in the context of Newell's hierarchy of coordination and control and Scully and Newell's visual perception perspective.