Athens 2004: the pollution climate and athletic performance

Athens sits in a basin approximately 450 km² in area, surrounded by mountains and open sea. Anthropogenic emissions in conjunction with the topographical and meteorological conditions can result in high air pollution within the city. The pollutants of concern for athletes competing in Athens 2004 appear to be nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), ozone and particulate (PM₁₀) pollution. Exposure to elevated ozone concentrations has been reported to give rise to symptoms that include cough, chest pain, difficulty in breathing, headache, eye irritation and a decrease in forced expiratory volume in one second. All of these effects are likely to impact upon performance, and several studies of cyclists suggest this to be the case. In contrast, the impact of ambient concentrations of NO₂ appears to be negligible on normal activities, but at high exercise intensities the impact remains unclear. The use of currently available information and models to predict the effect of ozone and other pollutants on elite athletes is problematical, since such models are based upon significantly lower ventilation rates than those achieved by some elite athletes. In addition, it is already known that the response to ozone can vary somewhat between individuals. Since the individuals who will be competing in Athens are physiologically very different to the participants in most published studies, it is difficult to predict individual responses. There is some evidence to indicate that adaptation to the adverse health and performance effects of ozone can occur, so that performance is partially recovered on re-exposure. The adaptation is not seen in all studies and appears to be dependent on several factors, including the initial sensitivity of the individual to ozone. Antioxidant supplementation has also been shown in some studies to partially ameliorate the adverse effects of ozone by counteracting the oxidative stress mechanism associated with this pollutant. Whether this transfers to performance enhancement per se remains unclear at present. Additional research is required to gain a sound understanding of the effects of a complex mixed air pollution exposure on the pulmonary function and performance of athletes exercising at high work intensities.     

Demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan endurance runners

Abstract

Kenyan athletes have dominated international distance running in recent years. Explanations for their success include favourable physiological characteristics, which could include favourable genetic endowment, and advantageous environmental conditions. The aim of this study was to compare the demographic characteristics of elite Kenyan runners with those of the general Kenyan population. Questionnaires, administered to 404 elite Kenyan runners specializing in distances ranging from the 800 m to the marathon and 87 Kenyan controls, obtained information on place of birth, language, and distance and method of travel to school. Athletes were separated into two groups according to athletic success: those who competed in international competition and those who competed in national competition. The athletes differed from controls in regional distribution, language, and distance and method of travel to school; athletes also differed from each other with the exception of method of travel to school. Most national and international athletes came from the Rift Valley province (controls 20%, national athletes 65%, international athletes 81%), belonged to the Kalenjin ethnic group (controls 8%, national athletes 49%, international athletes 76%) and Nandi sub-tribe (controls 5%, national athletes 25%, international athletes 44%), and spoke languages of Nilotic origin (controls 21%, national athletes 60%, international athletes 79%). A higher proportion of all athletes ran to school each day (controls 22%, national athletes 73%, international athletes 81%) and covered greater distances. In conclusion, Kenyan runners are from a distinctive environmental background in terms of geographical distribution, ethnicity and travelled further to school, mostly by running. These findings highlight the importance of environmental and social factors in the success of Kenyan runners.     

The effect of biofeedback training on affective regulation and simulated car-racing performance: A multiple case study analysis

Abstract

In this study, we wished to investigate the factors that determine the direction of the spin axis of a pitched baseball. Nineteen male baseball pitchers were recruited to pitch fastballs. The pitching motion was recorded with a three-dimensional motion analysis system (1000 Hz), and the orientations of the hand segment in a global coordinate system were calculated using Euler rotation angles. Reflective markers were attached to the ball, and the direction of the spin axis was calculated on the basis of their positional changes. The spin axis directions were significantly correlated with the orientations of the hand just before ball release. The ball is released from the fingertip and rotates on a plane that is formed by the palm and fingers; the spin axis of the ball is parallel to this plane. The lift force of the pitched baseball is largest when the angular and translational velocity vectors are mutually perpendicular. Furthermore, to increase the lift forces for the fastballs, the palm must face home plate.     

Health benefits of Kung Fu: A systematic review

Abstract

The Chinese martial arts (Kung Fu) have existed for centuries and are generally accepted as being beneficial for health without much empirical data. The aim of this systematic review was to assess the health effects of “hard” Kung Fu styles by performing electronic and manual searches of the literature. The aspects of health and the Kung Fu style examined varied between most studies; in some cases, the martial art group consisted of practitioners of other martial art styles also. Of 2103 references identified, only nine papers were eligible and reviewed. All were observational studies, observing a range of health aspects possibly related to Kung Fu training or performance. Our findings suggest that there is no evidence that Kung Fu practice is associated with the prevention or treatment of any health condition. However, as a moderate- to high-intensity form of aerobic exercise, it may confer benefits similar to those attributed to other aerobic training modalities. However, this hypothesis remains to be tested in clinical trials. Physiological benefits (e.g., aerobic capacity and bone density) may be associated with long-term Kung Fu practice. Future research in this area should adopt experimental designs, clearly identifying eligibility criteria, testing and training protocols, and include health-related outcomes and documentation of adverse events, to advance knowledge in this field.     

Velocity and acceleration before contact in the tackle during rugby union matches

Abstract

The velocity and acceleration at which the ball-carrier or tackler enters the tackle may contribute to winning the contest and prevailing injury free. Velocity and acceleration have been quantified in controlled settings, whereas in match-play it has been subjectively described. The purpose of this study was to determine the velocity and acceleration of the ball-carrier and tackler before contact during match-play in three competitions (Super 14, Varsity Cup, and Under-19 Currie Cup). Using a two-dimensional scaled version of the field, the velocity and acceleration of the ball-carrier and tackler were measured at every 0.1 s to contact for 0.5 s. For front-on tackles, a significant difference (P < 0.05) between the ball-carrier (4.6 ± 1 m · s^–1) and tackler (7.1 ± 3.5 m · s^–1) was found at the 0.5 s time to contact interval in the Varsity Cup. For side-on tackles, differences between the two opposing players were found at 0.5 s (ball-carrier: 4.6 ± 1.7 m · s^–1; tackler: 3.1 ± 1.2 m · s^–1) and 0.4 s (ball-carrier: 6.3 ± 2.3 m · s^–1; tackler: 3.7 ± 1.6 m · s^–1) at Under-19 level. After 0.4 s, no significant differences (P > 0.05) were evident. Also, the ball-carrier's velocity over the 0.5 s was relatively stable compared with that of the tackler. Results suggest that tacklers adjust their velocity to reach a suitable relative velocity before making contact with the ball-carrier.     

The effects of eccentric phase duration on concentric outcomes in the back squat and bench press in well-trained males

ABSTRACT

The velocity and magnitude in which the eccentric phase of an exercise is completed directly affects performance during the concentric phase. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of eccentric phase duration on concentric outcomes at 60% and 80% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the squat and bench press. Sixteen college-aged, resistance-trained males completed 1RM testing, established normative eccentric durations, and performed fast (0.75 times normative) and slow (2.0 times normative) metronome-controlled eccentric duration repetitions. Outcome measures assessed during the concentric phase were: average concentric velocity (ACV), peak concentric velocity (PCV), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), range of motion (ROM), and barbell path. Eccentric duration was significantly and inversely correlated with ACV at 60% (r = ?0.408, p = 0.004) and 80% (r = ?0.477, p = 0.001) of 1RM squat. At 60% of 1RM squat, both fast and slow eccentric conditions produced greater (p < 0.001) PCV than normative duration with fast also producing greater PCV than slow (p = 0.044). Eccentric duration had no impact on RPE, ROM, or barbell path. Our results report for the first time that resistance-trained males performing a deliberately faster eccentric phase may enhance their own squat and bench press performance.     

Tackle and ruck technique proficiency within academy and senior club rugby union

ABSTRACT

This study examined the validity of a tool that assesses tackle and ruck technique in training and established reference data for tackle, ball-carry and ruck technique at different levels of play in rugby union. One hundred and thirty-one amateur rugby union players; 37 senior, 51 first-grade academy and 43 second-grade academy players, participated in a two-on-two contact drill. The drill was filmed and the players’ tackle, ball-carry and ruck technique were assessed using standardized technical criteria. Senior level players scored significantly higher in all three assessments; tackle technique senior vs academy 1^st (p < 0.01, effect size (ES) = 0.7, moderate), senior vs academy 2^nd (p < 0.01, ES = 0.7, moderate); ball-carry technique senior vs academy 1^st (p < 0.01, ES = 0.6, moderate), senior vs academy 2^nd (p < 0.01, ES = 0.8, moderate); ruck technique senior vs academy 1^st (p < 0.01, ES = 0.7, moderate), senior vs academy 2^nd (p < 0.01, ES = 0.4, small). These findings emphasize the importance of developing contact technique to allow players to progress to higher levels, and provide validity to an assessment tool which can facilitate this process.     

Gold Medal Volleyball: The Training Program and Physiological Profile of the 1984 Olympic Champions

Abstract

This study focused on the differences between experienced and inexperienced physical education teachers' approaches to planning, low inference indicators of teaching behavior during instruction, and global variables from the Beginning Teacher Evaluation Study. It was found experienced teachers asked many more questions before they began planning than did inexperienced teachers. Experienced teachers' plans reflected a concern about contingencies that might arise during instruction, whereas inexperienced teachers' plans did not. Interaction analysis and codings of student engagement showed marked differences between experienced and inexperienced teachers. Judging the qualities of experienced and inexperienced teachers also showed important differences. These sources of data are interrelated and give a vivid picture of how experienced and inexperienced teachers differ in accomplishment of instruction. The findings are discussed in terms of what they may mean for teacher development programs.     

Effects of Different Durations of Physical Training on Cardiorespiratory Function,Body Composition,and Serum Lipids

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to determine the effects of 15, 30, and 45 min of conditioning on maximum performance and cardiorespiratory fitness variables, body composition, pulmonary function, and serum lipids. Subjects, ages 20 to 35, were 59 inmates at a California state prison. The conditioning included running and walking and was performed three days/week at approximately 85 to 90% max HR for 20 weeks. The distance covered per exercise session was approximately 1.75, 3.25, and 5.1 miles for the 15-, 30-, and 45-min groups, respectively.

Improvements in treadmill performance time. [Vdot]O₂ max, max O₂ pulse, diastolic blood pressure, and total skinfold fat were proportional to duration of the training session; i.e., the subjects training in the longer duration sessions showed the greater improvements. The control group showed no significant change during the same period. Compared to the control group, the 15-min group made significant reductions in resting HR, total skinfold fat, percent fat, and waist girth and increases in [Vdot]O₂ max, max O₂ pulse,[Vdot]_E max, and treadmill performance time. Vital capacity, FEV_1.0, and % FEV_1.0 remained relatively unchanged in all four groups, as did serum cholesterol and triglycerides. The 45-min group improved significantly more than the 15-min group in treadmill time, [Vdot]O₂ max, max O₂ pulse, resting systolic and diastolic blood pressures, and percent fat. In general, comparisons between the 15- and 30-min groups and between the 30- and 45-min groups failed to yield statistically significant differences.     

The German Workers' Sport Movement between Socialism,Workers' Culture,Middle-Class Gymnastics and Sport for All

The 150th birthday of the German Labor Party Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands (SPD) provides a good opportunity to research and discuss the genesis of the workers' sport movement in Germany. In this article, the German workers' sport history is placed in a broader context of the development of the German club sports system. This system emerged in the middle of the nineteenth century and was strongly influenced by national or nationalistic, as well as socialist ideas and concepts of workers' sport. The chronological context therefore commences long before 1893, when the socialist workers' gymnastics federation (ATB) was formally founded. The history also does not end in 1933, when the socialist organisations were destroyed by the Nazi regime. The concepts, ideas, visions and morality of workers sports are still alive – at least partly – in current sports.