Statistical methods for analysing discrete and categorical data recorded in performance analysis

In this paper, we identify appropriate statistical methods for analysing categorical differences in discrete variables or 'performance indicators' resulting from performance analysis. The random mechanisms associated with discrete events do not follow a normal distribution; that is, the normal distribution is a continuous not a discrete probability distribution. We propose appropriate statistical methods based on two key discrete probability distributions, the Poisson and binomial distributions. Two approaches are proposed and compared using examples from notational analysis. The first approach is based on the classic chi-square test of significance (both the goodness-of-fit test and the test of independence). The second approach adopts a more contemporary method based on log-linear and logit models fitted using the statistical software GLIM. Provided relatively simple one-way and two-way comparisons in categorical data are required, both of these approaches result in very similar conclusions. However, as soon as more complex models or higher-order comparisons are required, the approach based on log-linear and logit models is shown to be more effective. Indeed, when investigating those factors and categorical differences associated with binomial or binary response variables, such as the proportion of winners when attempting decisive shots in squash or the proportion of goals scored from all shots in association football, logit models become the only realistic method available. By applying log-linear and logit models to discrete events resulting from notational analysis, greater insight into the underlying mechanisms associated with sport performance can be achieved.     

Understanding the rationale for preschool physical education: implications for practitioners' and children's embodied practices and subjectivity formation

This paper provides an overview of selected academic research literature that underpins contemporary preschool physical education. We highlight and interrogate diverse rationales and beliefs that serve to influence and structure preschool physical education in various forms. We speculate as to how preschool practitioners and children might engage in specific practices relative to these discourses. Our consideration of preschool physical education discourses relies upon a Foucaultian analysis of the major techniques of power and also raises possibilities of conceptualising subjectivity formation through his concept of the ‘technologies of the self’. Discourses related to motor skill development, play and physical activity, in particular, appear to be prevalent in the selected literature, along with a related pedagogical discourse concerning ‘structure and freedom’. These sometimes competing discourses arguably underpin competing agendas reflecting those who advocate supporting children's free play and those who propose more structured and interventionist practices in relation to young children's physical activity. We conclude that these diverse approaches lend themselves to interpretation and negotiation in the context of preschool physical education, with specific consequences for the embodied experiences and subjectivities of preschool practitioners and children.     

The influence of gender-related beliefs and conceptions of ability on women learning the hockey wrist shot

The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability on perceived and actual competene and patterns of behavior during practice of the hockey wrist shot. Sixty-eight undergraduate women formed four treatment conditions based on their beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability. Four teachers taught across the treatment conditions for a total of 16 learning groups. Data were collected through a three-part questionnaire and from audio-video taping of the entire episode to ascertain the paticipants' competency beliefs, effort, and performance. Gender appropriateness impacted the participants' perceptions of competence and actual performance in the study, while beliefs about conceptions of ability did not produce a significant difference. This study reaffirms that educators must work diligently to combat the stereotypical beliefs many hold with respect to the gender appropriateness of physical activities.     

Nutritional strategies to optimize training and racing in middle-distance athletes

Middle-distance athletes implement a dynamic continuum in training volume, duration, and intensity that utilizes all energy-producing pathways and muscle fibre types. At the centre of this periodized training regimen should be a periodized nutritional approach that takes into account acute and seasonal nutritional needs induced by specific training and competition loads. The majority of a middle-distance athlete's training and racing is dependant upon carbohydrate-derived energy provision. Thus, to support this training and racing intensity, a high carbohydrate intake should be targeted. The required energy expenditure throughout each training phase varies significantly, and thus the total energy intake should also vary accordingly to better maintain an ideal body composition. Optimizing acute recovery is highly dependant upon the immediate consumption of carbohydrate to maximize glycogen resynthesis rates. To optimize longer-term recovery, protein in conjunction with carbohydrate should be consumed. Supplementation of beta-alanine or sodium bicarbonate has been shown to augment intra- and extracellular buffering capacities, which may lead to a small performance increase. Future studies should aim to alter specific exercise (resistance vs. endurance) and/or nutrition stimuli and measure downstream effects at multiple levels that include gene and molecular signalling pathways, leading to muscle protein synthesis, that result in optimized phenotypic adaptation and performance.     

Clinical librarians,a new tribe in the UK: roles and responsibilities

Aims: The aims of this research were to determine the background, education, training experience, roles and responsibilities of practising Clinical Librarians (CL) in the UK. This paper reports the findings of a survey undertaken in 2007 at the third Clinical Librarian conference. This research builds on research undertaken by Harrison and Sargeant in 2002 and Ward in 2004, and can be considered as part of a longitudinal study of the role of the CL in the UK. Objectives: The objectives of the research were to define and gain a broad understanding of the role of the CL in the UK highlighting similarities and differences amongst the professionals and provide evidence for a baseline of skills and activities for the CL role. The type of sampling used was Judgemental. Results/analysis: Results/analysis detail the skills and activities undertaken by CLs. Searching for information for Clinicians was the activity most frequently undertaken. Developing good relationships with other healthcare professionals was considered essential. Two‐thirds of the respondents held a postgraduate library qualification. Conclusions: Crucially a new model for the UK CL role is derived drawing on the findings of this study and the existing literature.     

Incorporating technologies into a flexible teaching space

Higher education institutions are increasingly exploring how they can use emerging technologies to develop and enhance the learning experiences offered to students. These activities have mainly focused on developing student‐centred facilities. The University of Warwick has taken the next step by developing a space (the Teaching Grid) specifically designed to meet the needs of teaching staff across the institution. This paper describes how the Teaching Grid supports teachers by providing a flexible experimental space together with a rich collection of established and new technologies, and with comprehensive staff support. We analysed the use of the facility during the first 30 months of operation, using data collected from 119 case studies, in order to present a perspective on how they have used the technologies and how this has impacted on their teaching practice. We present a taxonomy that provides a concrete framework to support future analysis of and comparisons between such spaces.     

The effects of work:rest duration on physiological and perceptual responses during intermittent exercise and performance

Abstract

In this study, we examined the effects of different work:rest durations during 20 min intermittent treadmill running and subsequent performance. Nine males (mean age 25.8 years, s = 6.8; body mass 73.9 kg, s = 8.8; stature 1.75 m, s = 0.05; [Vdot]O_2max 55.5 ml · kg^?1 · min^?1, s = 5.8) undertook repeated sprints at 120% of the speed at which [Vdot]O_2max was attained interspersed with passive recovery. The work:rest ratio was constant (1:1.5) with trials involving either short (6:9 s) or long (24:36 s) work:rest exercise protocols (total exercise time 8 min). Each trial was followed by a performance run to volitional exhaustion at the same running speed. Testing order was randomized and counterbalanced. Heart rate, oxygen consumption, respiratory exchange ratio, and blood glucose were similar between trials (P > 0.05). Blood lactate concentration was greater during the long than the short exercise protocol (P < 0.05), whereas blood pH was lower during the long than the short exercise protocol (7.28, s = 0.11 and 7.30, s = 0.03 at 20 min, respectively; P < 0.05). Perceptions of effort were greater throughout exercise for the long than the short exercise protocol (16.6, s = 1.4 and 15.1, s = 1.6 at 20 min, respectively; P < 0.05) and correlated with blood lactate (r = 0.43) and bicarbonate concentrations (r = ?0.59; P < 0.05). Although blood lactate concentration at 20 min was related to performance time (r = ?0.56; P < 0.05), no differences were observed between trials for time to exhaustion (short exercise protocol: 95.8 s, s = 30.0; long exercise protocol: 92.0 s, s = 37.1) or physiological responses at exhaustion (P > 0.05). Our results demonstrate that 20 min of intermittent exercise involving a long work:rest duration elicits greater metabolic and perceptual strain than intermittent exercise undertaken with a short work:rest duration but does not affect subsequent run time to exhaustion.     

Curriculum Continuity and Transfer from Primary to Secondary School: the case of history

The transfer of children from primary school to secondary school has long been seen as a problematic area. The National Curriculum was depicted as offering a solution to some of the transfer problems by providing for curriculum continuity across the primary-secondary divide. This paper reports the results of a study of curriculum continuity in one subject, history, now that a National Curriculum has been in place for several years. It reports that teachers continue to see problems with the transfer and that secondary school teachers still incline to a ‘fresh start’ approach to year 7 pupils. There is also some evidence of a lack of curriculum consistency within the secondary schools involved in the research, there are differences between primary and secondary schools in the range of teaching and learning methods employed, there is some decline in pupils’ ratings of their experience of secondary education across year 7 and there are signs of some gender differences in these ratings. The conclusion is that there is a case for saying that the new arrangements have not alleviated the problems associated with the transfer.