Current implementation and practice of educational policy for HIV-positive children: A national study

Policy development for HIV-positive children in the public schools has been delayed. Difficulties with problem definition, indecisiveness, and conflict regarding which policy-making body is responsible for policy development and implementation, and complacency about the need for policy, appear to be the reasons that have hampered policy development. This article presents further findings of a national study regarding state-level policy for HIV-positive children and focuses on current implementation and practice of such policy (or lack thereof), as well as the states' perceptions of improvements that are needed in current policy. Forty-nine of fifty-one states and the District of Columbia responded to the study. The responses are analyzed as part of a model that specifies state experience, perceived need, and degree of state centralization of decision making as possible predictors of policy content and implementation.     

Specification of the stimulus-reinforcer relation in multiple schedules: Delay and probability of reinforcement

Control of pigeons’ keypecking by a stimulus-reinforcer contingency was investigated in the context of a four-component multiple schedule. In each of three experiments, pigeons were exposed to a schedule consisting of two two-component sequences. Discriminative stimuli identifying each sequence were present only in Component 1, which was 4, 6, or 8 sec in duration, while reinforcers could be earned only in Component 2 (30 sec in duration). Control by a stimulus-reinforcer contingency was sought during Component 1 by arranging a differential relation between Component 1 cues and schedule of reinforcement in Component 2. In Experiment 1, rate of keypecking during Component 1 varied with the presence and absence of a stimulus-reinforcer contingency. When a contingency was introduced, rate of keypecking increased during the Component 1 cue associated with the availability of reinforcement in Component 2. In Experiment 2, the stimulus-reinforcer contingency was manipulated parametrically by varying the correlation between Component 1 cues and Component 2 schedules of reinforcement. Responding in Component 1 varied as a function of strength of the stimulus-reinforcer contingency. The relatively high rates of Component 1 responding observed in Experiments 1 and 2 pose difficulties for conceptions of stimulus-reinforcer control based on probability of reinforcement. In these two experiments, the stimulus-associated probabilities of reinforcement in Component 1 were invariant at zero. An alternate dimension of stimulus-reinforcer control was explored in Experiment 3, in which Component 1 cues were differentially associated with delay to reinforcement in Component 2, while probability of reinforcement was held constant across components. When the stimulus-reinforcer contingency was in force, rate of responding in Component 1 varied inversely with delay to reinforcement in Component 2. In a quantitative analysis of data from Experiments 2 and 3, relative rate of responding during Component 1 was strongly correlated with two measures of relative delay to reinforcement.     

Envisioning a meaningful future and academic engagement: The role of parenting practices and school‐based relationships

In contrast to the focus on short‐term, extrinsic goals in our society (e.g., wealth, prestige), positive youth development scholars have highlighted the need for parents and schools to help youths cultivate and plan for long‐term, intrinsic, and meaningful goals (i.e., envisioning a meaningful future), arguing that envisioning a meaningful future is potentially inspiring and associated with better outcomes for youths. Envisioning a meaningful future includes being future‐oriented and planful and having a sense of purpose, a life focus that provides deep meaning to life and contributes to the good of society. This study used structural equation modeling to examine the direct and indirect effects of parental and school relationships on envisioning a meaningful future and academic engagement in a diverse sample of adolescents (n = 624). Parental and school‐based relationships were positively associated with academic engagement, and this association was partially mediated by envisioning a meaningful future. Analyses revealed the importance of parental and school relationships in engaging youths in developing a vision for a meaningful future toward the goal of academic engagement. Variations between African‐Americans and Whites, and across grade and parental education levels are discussed.     

Teachers explore knowledge management and E-learning as models for professional development

Conclusion It is interesting to report that the educators who took part in this look at KM and e-leaming have a great expectation of the development of online communities of learning. As one said in an e-mail message three days after the end of the course, “I just keep logging back on looking for interesting ideas and discussions with my extended family—I guess I’m addicted.” The model of resource gathering, resource sharing, collaboration and responsibility for learning which seems natural in an online course may be training the students to expect these same elements in professional development. Knowledge management and e-learning may provide additional conceptual models to build professional development to match these expectations. Special thanks to the students in ITED 7500 Instructional Technology Management, Spring Semester, 2000, whose contributions shaped this effort in ’the scholarship of teaching’.     

Community violence exposure, social cognition, and aggression among urban elementary school children

The effects of witnessing community violence on aggressive cognitions and behavior were investigated in an ethnically diverse sample of 4,458 children living in urban neighborhoods. Prior violence exposure had a significant effect in increasing aggression, normative beliefs about aggression, and aggressive fantasy. Although exposure to violence predicted aggressive behavior both in Grades 1 through 3 (ages 5-8) and Grades 4 through 6 (ages 9-12), the effects on social cognition were only evident in the later grades. Furthermore, the effect of violence exposure on aggression in the later grades was partially mediated by its effect on social cognition. These findings suggest that witnessing community violence has an effect on children's aggressive behavior through both imitation of violence and the development of associated cognitions as children get older.     

Academics at work: mentoring in research,teaching, and service

Abstract

This qualitative interview study investigates how mentoring is used to develop knowledge and skills for early career academics across the academic roles of research, teaching, and service. Results indicate similar amounts of mentoring in research for men and women, more mentoring in teaching for women, and a lack of mentoring in service across gender. Methodological, theoretical, and practical implications for institutions of higher education are discussed, particularly those aimed at addressing inequality for women.     

Contemporaneous and Longitudinal Prediction of Children's Social Functioning from Regulation and Emotionality

Relations of regulation and emotionality to social functioning were examined for 77 children followed from early to middle school age. Parents and teachers reported on children's social behavior, emotionality, and regulation, and children engaged in analogue peer conflict situations (i.e., with puppets). High-quality social functioning was predicted by high regulation and low levels of nonconstructive coping, nevatige emotionality, and general emotional intensity. Prediction often was obtained across reporters and time, although prediction was strongest within context (home versus school). Moreover, measures of regulation and emotionality frequently contributed unque variance to the prediction of social functioning. Contemporaneous correlations at age 8–10 were similar to those obtained at age 6–8, and prediction of later social functioning from emotionality and regulation at age 4–6 was similar at ages 6–8 and 8–10.