Spelling as a self‐teaching mechanism in orthographic learning

The present study examined the possibility that spelling fulfils a self‐teaching function in the acquisition of orthographic knowledge because, like decoding, it requires close attention to letter order and identity as well as to word‐specific spelling–sound mapping. We hypothesised that: (i) spelling would lead to significant (i.e. above‐chance) levels of orthographic learning; (ii) spelling would actually result in superior learning relative to reading owing to the additional processing demands invoked when spelling; (iii) there would be stronger outcomes for post‐test spelling production compared with spelling recognition; and (iv) relative to reading, spelling would produce superior orthographic learning in the case of later‐occurring orthographic detail compared with information appearing earlier in the letter string. In a fully within‐subjects design, third grade Hebrew readers were exposed to novel letter strings presented in three conditions: spelling, reading and an unseen control condition. With the exception of the position by condition interaction (our fourth hypothesis), which, although in the expected direction, failed to attain significance, all hypotheses were supported. These data highlight yet another dimension of reading–writing reciprocity by suggesting that spelling offers a powerful self‐teaching tool in the compilation of word‐specific orthographic representations.     

Revisiting print exposure: exploring differential links to vocabulary,comprehension and reading rate

Undergraduates (N=171) completed a revised version of the Author Recognition Test ( Stanovich & West, 1989 ). The resulting print exposure scores were divided into two dimensions: personal reading experience (primary print knowledge – PPK) and secondary print knowledge (SPK). Both PPK and SPK were correlated with print exposure, but not with each other. PPK correlated more strongly with reading‐related variables (vocabulary, comprehension and reading rate) than did SPK. Of particular importance, PPK accounted for variance in all three criterion variables after the effects of SPK had been factored out. Thus, these data support the notion that it is the act of reading over and above memory for reading‐related information that furthers the development of linguistic skill.     

Reading with vocabulary intervention: evaluation of an instruction for children with poor response to reading intervention

Interventions combining phonically based reading instruction with phonological training are generally effective for children with reading (decoding) difficulties. However, a minority of children respond poorly to such interventions. This study explored the characteristics of children who showed poor response to reading intervention and aimed to improve their literacy and language skills via a new theoretically motivated intervention. Twelve 8‐year‐old treatment poor responders with severe and persisting reading difficulties participated. A 9‐week reading intervention incorporating reading, phonological and vocabulary training was implemented. Before the intervention began the children showed almost no progress over 6 months of regular classroom education, on measures of oral language and literacy. Over the intervention period improvements were made on measures of reading, phonological awareness and language skills, which were maintained 6 months later. Although the intervention was effective, it should be noted that most children remained poor readers and require ongoing remediation.     

Effectiveness of using learner‐centered principles on student retention in distance education courses in rural schools

This article examines the effectiveness of training facilitators in secondary schools to follow APA learner‐centered principles to support learners in distance education. The study was a cluster‐randomized control trial with 36 match pairs of schools and 246 students in the rural USA. The schools were selected at random and assigned at random to treatment condition. Instructors were blind to the treatment condition as were the local facilitators and schools. Data on length of time spent in the course and whether students completed the semester were analyzed. The results indicated that students in the intervention condition completed the first semester at a statistically higher rate than control students where facilitators did not have this training. The number of weeks students remained in the course was likewise statistically different with students in the intervention condition staying in the course more weeks holding instructor constant.     

Examining Hong Kong students’ achievement goals and their relations with students’ perceived classroom environment and strategy use

This study examined Hong Kong students’ achievement goals and their relations with students’ perceived classroom environment and strategy use based on the multiple goal perspective of goal orientation theory. A total of 925 Grade 8 students from six secondary schools in Hong Kong voluntarily responded to a questionnaire that measured these three sets of variables. Consistent with previous studies using goal orientation theory, the findings of this study indicated that students’ perceived classroom environment was significantly related to their personal achievement goals and strategy use. While mastery goals were found to be the strongest predictor of strategy use, performance‐approach goals and perceived instrumentality also had positive relations with mastery goals and strategy use. Our findings suggest that mastery goals and performance goals were not contrasting goals as conceptualised in normative goal orientation theory. Students with high motivation for both types of goal were more adaptive in learning than were students who pursued a single type of goal. Moreover, the value of adding perceived instrumentality when studying students’ motivation should be emphasised. The implications of these findings for understanding Hong Kong students’ motivation, and for planning effective teaching instruction to enhance their motivation, are discussed.     

Multiple‐goal learners and their differential patterns of learning

The hypothesis in this study was that different types of multiple‐goal learners would have different patterns of learning. A sample of 797 adult distance learners enrolled in different programs offered by a distance learning university in Hong Kong completed a questionnaire assessing their goals, use of strategies, motivational beliefs, and attitudes towards the course they were doing. Two‐stage cluster analyses found a group of single‐goal learners (mastery focused) and three groups of multiple‐goal learners with different focuses in their goal profiles: performance focus, work focus, and multiple focuses. These four clusters of learners differed in terms of use of learning strategies, regulatory strategies, motivational beliefs, and attitudes towards the course. Learners focusing on work‐related goals or performance goals achieved better examination results than did those focusing on multiple goals or solely on mastery goals.     

Studying Score Stability with a Harmonic Regression Family: A Comparison of Three Approaches to Adjustment of Examinee‐Specific Demographic Data

For assessments that use different forms in different administrations, equating methods are applied to ensure comparability of scores over time. Ideally, a score scale is well maintained throughout the life of a testing program. In reality, instability of a score scale can result from a variety of causes, some are expected while others may be unforeseen. The situation is more challenging for assessments that assemble many different forms and deliver frequent administrations per year. Harmonic regression, a seasonal‐adjustment method, has been found useful in achieving the goal of differentiating between possible known sources of variability and unknown sources so as to study score stability for such assessments. As an extension, this paper presents a family of three approaches that incorporate examinees' demographic data into harmonic regression in different ways. A generic evaluation method based on jackknifing is developed to compare the approaches within the family. The three approaches are compared using real data from an international language assessment. Results suggest that all approaches perform similarly and are effective in meeting the goal. The paper also discusses the properties and limitations of the three approaches, along with inferences about score (in)stability based on the harmonic regression results.     

Students' perfectionistic profiles: Stability,change, and associations with achievement goal orientations

In this study, we examined what kind of perfectionistic profiles (i.e., different patterns of perfectionistic strivings and concerns) can be identified among general upper‐secondary school students, how stable those profiles are over the school year, and how they are connected with students' motivation (i.e., achievement goal orientations). Four distinct profiles were identified. Students with high strivings and low concerns had their focus mainly on mastery, while students with an opposite profile emphasized performance‐avoidance and work‐avoidance orientations. Students with high strivings and concerns favored both performance‐ and mastery‐related goals, whereas students characterized by low strivings and low concerns did not display a dominant tendency toward any orientation. Perfectionistic profiles were relatively stable over time, with the majority of students reporting similar tendencies across the measurements, and with no extreme changes observed. Some indications of more students displaying less adaptive perfectionistic tendencies by the end of the school year were nevertheless found. Our findings demonstrate not only stability in perfectionistic tendencies, but also their motivational relevance in the academic context where students' goals and performance concerns play an important role.