Claiming more: the Increased Voluminosity of Patent Applications and its Determinants

The size of patent applications has doubled over the past two decades, resulting in a dramatic surge in the workload of patent offices all over the world and serious concerns over patent quality standards. The current paper investigates the sources of this inflation in claims and pages for EPO applications. Four hypotheses are quantitatively examined: the diffusion of national drafting practices, the complexity of research activities, the emergence of new sectors, and filing strategies. The results validate the four hypotheses. They reveal major differences across countries in patent drafting styles, especially between Civil and Common Law countries, the latter being characterized by much larger patents. Second, the success of the PCT route is leading to the harmonizing of drafting styles worldwide on the US model. This paper therefore challenges the commonly accepted idea that more claims reflect a broader scope of protection by showing that the size of patents is partly due to institutional changes in the system.     

Fine Motor Control Underlies the Association Between Response Inhibition and Drawing Skill in Early Development

Previous research shows that the development of response inhibition and drawing skill are linked. The current research investigated whether this association reflects a more fundamental link between response inhibition and motor control. In Experiment 1, 3- and 4-year-olds (n = 100) were tested on measures of inhibition, fine motor control, and drawing skill. Data revealed an association between inhibition and fine motor control, which was responsible for most of the association observed with drawing skill. Experiment 2 (n = 100) provided evidence that, unlike fine motor control, gross motor control and inhibition were not associated (after controlling for IQ). Alternative explanations for the link between inhibition and fine motor control are outlined, including a consideration of how these cognitive processes may interact during development.     

Upper limb and trunk muscle activity patterns during seated and standing cycling

The objective of this study is to clarify the functional roles of upper limb muscles during standing and seated cycling when power output increases. We investigated the activity of seven upper limb and trunk muscles using surface electromyography (EMG). Power outputs ranged from ~100–700 W with a pedalling frequency of 90 revolution per minute. Three-dimensional handle and pedal forces were simultaneously recorded. Using non-negative matrix factorisation, we extracted muscle synergies and we analysed the integrated EMG and EMG temporal patterns. Most of the muscles showed tonic activity that became more phasic as power output increased. Three muscle synergies were identified, associated with (i) torso stabilisation, (ii) compensation/generation of trunk accelerations and (iii) upper body weight support. Synergies were similar for seated and standing positions (Pearson’s r > 0.7), but synergy #2 (biceps brachii, deltoidus and brachioradialis) was shifted forward during the cycle (~7% of cycle). The activity levels of synergy #1 (latissimus dorsi and erector spinae) and synergy #2 increased markedly above ~500 W (i.e., ~+40–70% and +130–190%) and during periods corresponding to ipsi- and contralateral downstrokes, respectively. Our study results suggest that the upper limb and trunk muscles may play important roles in cycling when high power outputs are required.     

Effects of Training on the Estimation of Muscular Moment in Submaximal Exercise

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to observe the effects of a submaximal isometric training program on estimation capacity at 25, 50, and 75% of maximal contraction in isometric action and at two angular velocities. The second purpose was to study the variability of isometric action. To achieve these purposes, participants carried out an isokinetic extension movement of the dominant lower limb during six test sessions and nine training sessions. Following the training program, estimation capacity in the different actions did not improve. However, an improvement in performance was observed with a reduction in the variability of submaximal isometric actions. The proprioceptors activated in isometric action seemed to adapt to the training program itself, which would promote better adaptation by a greater solicitation of internal feedback.     

The Relative Age Effect in Elite Sport

The relative age effect (RAE) is considered a common phenomenon in elite sport. However, it has not been examined systematically in previous research, and the mechanisms likely to generate or to limit such an effect are little understood. This paper investigates the prevalence of the RAE in French professional championship-level players, taking into account the potential influence of gender. Among all investigated sports, no statistically significant RAE was found, except for male ice hockey. For male handball and rugby union a trend was detected, but the RAE did not appear statistically significant. In line with previous studies, no significant RAEs were found in female elite sports. The results are discussed with regard to the potential mechanisms underlying RAE.     

Interdisciplinary Research: A Promising Approach to Investigate Elite Performance in Sports

While the call for interdisciplinary studies has been loud and clear over the last decade or so, the number of interdisciplinary publications in sport sciences is rather limited. One of the reasons for this scarcity is the complexity of the research process itself. Still, the combination and integration of information from different scientific disciplines seems to be important to better explain how elite performance comes about. In this article, we focus on this issue and discuss the advantages of interdisciplinary research for understanding how elite athletes are able to achieve such high-proficiency levels. The first section provides an overview of the studies that investigated elite performance in sports. In the second section, we focus on the issue of interdisciplinarity and illustrate how the ecological–dynamical approach and the concept of dimensional reduction can be used to explain how elite performers cope with the complex nature of sport skills. In the last section, we present a research outline and some practical considerations that can be helpful for researchers who aim to study sport skills from an interdisciplinary perspective.     

Protective effect of endolithic fungal hyphae on oolitic limestone buildings

This study presents characterizations of weathering forms of the same oolitic limestone from four quarries and eight monuments exposed on various environmental conditions focusing on the waterproofing effect of endolithic organic matter. Patinas were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM-EDX), capillarity coefficient through weathered and unweathered sides, gypsum content and porous network morphology by epoxy resin molding. Study of weathering forms on old quarries indicates that lichens colonization (Verrucaria nigrescens and Caloplaca aurantia) can fill the superficial porous network with a dense network of lichenised fungal hyphae. Capillary coefficient measurement on natural and calcinated samples showed that endolithic organic matter can waterproof the stone and could act as a sulfate contamination barrier. Similar endolithic organic layer due to ancient lichens growth are found on some antique monuments of the Nîmes downtown and could explain their well-preserved state, unlike decayed 19th century churches that were never colonized by lichens.