Personal glimpses

The overarching purpose of this treatise was to develop a means by which to describe and evaluate existing perspectives on learning and to guide future explorations in this domain. Specifically, using the metaphor of a river system, we advance a framework into which theoretical perspectives and empirical investigations of learning can be positioned. We began by articulating nine principles of learning shared by diverse theoretical orientations. The primary focus of our analysis was a framework with four dimensions of learning (i.e., the what, where, who, and when) in continual interaction constituting the products and processes of learning. Based on these common principles and the interactive dimensions, we offered a definition of learning. Finally, we used three cases drawn from real-life experiences, and representing different configurations of the what, where, who, and when dimensions, to illuminate the comprehensiveness and utility of the topographical perspective on learning forwarded.     

ESTABLISHING MINIMUM STANDARDS FOR ESSAYS: BLIND VERSUS INFORMED RÉVIEWS

This study was undertaken to evaluate two procedures for establishing a minimum performance standard for the essay subtest of the National Teacher Examinations (NTE) Communication Skills test. Twenty public school teachers and 20 teacher educators were randomly assigned to either a "blind" or "informed" review panel. Both panels were directed to evaluate the same set of 12 sample essays. Those assigned to the informed panel were apprised of the scores previously awarded to each essay and were asked to decide upon the lowest score they would judge to be acceptable for a beginning teacher. Those assigned to the blind panel were not informed of the scores and were asked to judge whether each essay was at least minimally acceptable for a beginning teacher. Following their blind reviews, the scores were revealed to this group, and they were also asked to indicate the lowest score they would judge to be acceptable. No significant mean differences were observed for the standards associated with blind and informed reviews, but a significant mean difference was observed between the standards set by teachers and teacher educators; the former being more stringent. Based upon criteria other than mean differences, it was concluded that the preferred procedure for setting standards on essays should involve a blind review followed by an informed review. This strategy was subsequently implemented in a state-wide validation study in Virginia, and the results of this full-scale study are presented along with results reported for a study using informed reviews in another state.     

Training Counselors for Human Resource Development Positions in Business and Industry

Traditionally, counselors have not received systematic training for human resource development positions within business and industry. Yet counseling skills can be readily applied to the business setting. This article describes one counselor education department's response to the need for systematic training in human resource development.     

Social Class,Educational Opportunity and Equal Entitlement: Dilemmas of schooling in England and France

Through a comparison of the beliefs, goals and teaching methods adopted by primary school teachers working in areas of disadvantage in England and France, this paper considers how the education systems of the two countries resolve the dilemmas involved in providing educational opportunities to children of all social class backgrounds. Traditionally, the centralised French system, strongly influenced by a republican ideological tradition, has adopted a policy of equal entitlement and equal treatment for all, while the English system has enshrined the notion of differentiated teaching according to the perceived needs of the child. In research carried out before recent reforms, significant differences were found in the goals which inner city teachers set themselves in the two countries. Recent follow-up research indicates the continued central importance of teachers' values in the light of strong external pressure to change.     

A comparison of muscle activations during traditional and abbreviated tennis serves

The abbreviated tennis serve is a relatively novel modification of the traditional serve that has been reported to provide performance advantages over the traditional technique. However, there are limited objective data regarding the benefits and biomechanics of the abbreviated serve; no data exist that describe shoulder muscle activations during the abbreviated serve. The purpose of this study was to compare muscle activations between the traditional and abbreviated serves. Electromyographic data were collected for the anterior and posterior deltoid, infraspinatus, middle trapezius, latissimus dorsi, serratus anterior, and pectoralis major. When muscle activations were compared during each serve phase, no significant differences were observed between the traditional and abbreviated tennis serve techniques, indicating that the traditional and abbreviated serves are similar regarding shoulder muscle activations. These results could have implications for performance of and injury related to the abbreviated versus traditional serve technique. Although the abbreviated serve has anecdotally been described as advantageous, the present data do not indicate any significant advantages or disadvantages in performing the abbreviated serve technique versus the traditional serve.     

Contributions to Counselor Education and Supervision for Volumes 0–25, 1961–1986

There have been 1,141 authors representing 382 agencies who have contributed to Volumes 0 through 25 of CES. In this study the authors report and acknowledge the major individual contributors and institutional sources of works published in the journal.