A distributed system of educational administration: An international viewpoint

Any educational service is provided through a large number of separated institutions and many decisions are necessarily taken by individual schools, and, indeed, by individual teachers. However, these day-to-day decisions are taken within a framework laid down elsewhere. Power and responsibility in an educational system relate chiefly to the extent and nature of the resources provided, the curriculum and teaching methods, the character and purpose of individual institutions and the internal organization of those institutions. Significant decisions may be taken at national, state, local authority and individual school levels. Cutting across such patterns are employer-employee relationships and agreements negotiated with trade unions. The system of governance and administration of schools in England is seen as a triangle of tension, the three points being central government, local government and individual schools. Reference is made to patterns of curriculum, examinations, supervision and finance, the English approach being compared with practices elsewhere. It is argued that within the constraints imposed by the controlling authority individual schools shouls possess a great deal of flexibility in making their own decisions, including questions of student-staff ratios, allocation of teachers and expenditure of finance. Power and responsibility should not be divorced, but related; this is the logical development of a system of distributed administration.

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Zusammenfassung Jedes Bildungssystem besteht aus einer grossen Zahl separater Institutionen, und viele Entscheidungen müssen von den einzelnen Schulen und sogar den einzelnen Lehrern selbst getroffen werden. Der Rahmen für diese täglich notwendigen Entscheidungen wird jedoch an anderer Stelle festgelegt. Entscheidungsbefugnis und Verantwortung in einem Bildungssystem beziehen sich in der Hauptsache auf den Umfang und die Art der verfügbaren Mittel, auf Curricula und Lehrmethoden, den Charakter und Zweck der einzelnen Institutionen und ihre interne Organisation. Wichtige Entscheidungen können auf Staats-, Landes-, Bezirks- und Einzelschul-Ebene gefällt werden. Über diesen gazen Aufbau hinweg gehen Arbeitgeber-Arbeitnehmer-Beziehungen und Vereinbarungen mit Gewerkschaften. Das Leitungsund Verwaltungssystem für Schulen in England wird als ein Spannungsdreieck dargestellt, dessen drei Ecken die Zentralregierung, die örtlichen Behörden und die Schulen selbst bilden. Verschiedene englische Muster von Lehrplänen, Examen, Aufsich und Finanzen werden aufgezeigt und mit denen anderer Länder verglichen. Dabei wird betont, dass die einzelnen Schulen innerhalb der von der zuständigen Behörde gesetzten Grenzen ein grosses Mass von Entscheidungsfreiheit besitzen sollten, auch in Fragen wie Klassenstärke, Einsatz von Lehrern und Verwendung der Finanzmittel. Machtbefugnis und Verantwortung sollten nicht getrennt, sondern miteinander verbunden sein. Das ist die logische Entwicklung eines Systems aufgeteilter Verwaltung.

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Résumé Tout service d'éducation est doté d'un grand nombre d'institutions distinctes, et, de ce fait, de nombreuses décisions sont prises individuellement par chacune des écoles, aussi bien que par chacun des enseignants. Quoiqu'il en soit, ces décisions prises au jour le jour, le sont dans les limites d'un cadre venant d'ailleurs. Dans un système d'éducation, pouvoir et responsabilité sont surtout liés à l'étendue et à la nature des ressources disponibles, du programme et des méthodes d'enseignement, du caractère et des objectifs de chaque institution, ainsi que de l'organisation interne de ces institutions. Les décisions importantes puevent être prises au niveau des autorités nationales, régionales ou locales, aussi bien qu'à celui de chacun des établissements scolaires. Les relations employeurs-employés, de même que les accords négociés avec les syndicats sont taillés sur le même modèle. En Angleterre, le système de gestion et d'administration des écoles apparait comme un triangle de tension dont les trois sommets sont constitués par le gouvernement central, le gouvernement local et les établissements scolaires eux-mêmes. Il est fait référence à d'autres modèles de programmes, d'examens, de contrôle et de finances, le système anglais étant comparé à ce qui ce fait ailleurs. Il est exposé que dans le cadre des contraintes imposées par l'autorité de contrôle, chaque école devrait posséder une grande marge de flexibilité pour prendre ses propres décisions, comprenant les questions des rapports d'associations d'élèves, les affectations des enseignants et les dépenses financières. Pouvoir et responsabilité ne devraient pas être séparés mais associés, tel est l'évolution logique d'une administration scolaire fonctionnant suivant un système de répartition.

     

Three types of conduct‐problem boys in an educational setting

Third grade boys identified as being disruptive to on‐going classroom activities were grouped according to their teacher's ratings of their behaviour characteristics as unco‐operative (Type I), easily flustered (Type II), and unco‐operative and easily flustered (Type III). No significant differences in performance existed between types on individually administered tests of perception and psycholinguistic abilities. On group administered tests of academic achievement and intelligence, the uncooperative boys did significantly better than the other two types. It was also determined that the easily flustered boys did substantially better on individually administered measures of IQ. than they did on group administered measures. These findings suggest that teachers should avoid using group tests to evaluate disruptive boys they perceive as being easily flustered.     

Teaching Counseling Skills Through Self-Management Procedures

Counseling skills can be learned through self-management programs, as well as through more traditional methods. The benefits of self-management in counselor training are discussed, and an outline of an applicable procedure for self-change projects is detailed. Two examples of completed self-managed change in counselor behavior are included.     

Masculinity and femininity in twin children: genetic and environmental factors

Genetic and environmental origins of individual differences in masculine and feminine personality attributes were investigated in a sample of 38 monozygotic and 32 dizygotic twin pairs (total N = 140) during pre- and early adolescence. Self-report measures of both masculine and feminine characteristics were obtained for each child using 2 standardized instruments: the Children's Personality Attributes Questionnaire (CPAQ) and the Adolescent Self-Perception Inventory (ASPI). Multivariate biometrical analyses revealed significant genetic influences in all measures, accounting for 20%-48% of the observed variation in each. Environmental influences, which explained the remaining 52%-80% of variance in masculinity and femininity, were apparently specific to each individual and not shared by members of the same twin pair. The results underscore the importance of considering both genetic and environmental factors in gender-role development, particularly in studies of family resemblance.     

The adaptation of hearing parents of hearing-impaired youths

This study evaluated the emotional and marital adjustment of hearing parents of hearing-impaired youths. Participants included mothers and fathers of hearing-impaired youths and mothers and fathers of hearing youths. In contrast with expectations based on clinical impressions reported in the literature, parents of hearing-impaired youths reported less symptomatology than did parents of hearing youths, and there were no differences in the marital satisfaction of parents in intact families. Moreover, parental adjustment was not associated with the duration of time since the child was diagnosed as hearing impaired. In addition, hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that family cohesion was associated with low maternal symptomatology and high marital satisfaction for both spouses. For mothers, low symptomatology was associated with low stress and female gender of child; high marital satisfaction also was linked with a less severe degree of hearing loss in the youth.     

Learning disabilities in alcohol-dependent adults: a preliminary study

To determine if neuropsychological deficits, known to precede alcohol use in those genetically predisposed to alcoholism, were present in an alcoholic population, 25 male alcoholics (mean age 41.1) were interviewed concerning alcohol usage, educational difficulties in elementary school, and family history of alcoholism. Using a regression table, discrepancies between current IQ on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Revised (WAIS-R) (Wechsler, 1981) and achievement on the Woodcock-Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery (WJB) (Woodcock & Johnson, 1977) were calculated to determine present learning status. Forty percent of the alcoholics were found to have had special education, remedial services, or repeated grade failure concurrent with a familial history of alcoholism and current discrepancies indicative of learning disability. There were no significant differences on intelligence, years of drinking, or mean grades completed in school between this group and the rest of the subjects who did not receive services in school. Conclusions were that childhood learning disorders may be related to the development of alcoholism, particularly when alcoholism is in the family, and that special educators have a role to play in the prevention and treatment of alcoholism.     

Mother-Toddler Problem Solving: Antecedents in Attachment, Home Behavior, and Temperament

In a widely cited study, Matas, Arend, and Sroufe showed that mother-toddler interaction during problem solving at age 2 years was related to the child's prior attachment security. The current study asked (1) whether an independent laboratory could replicate this attachment finding, and (2) whether problem-solving interactions relate to mother-child interactions observed at home and to child temperament measured at 6, 13, and 24 months. Replicating Matas et al., secure dyads worked more competently, and mothers showed better quality of assistance and supportive presence. Mother-child home interaction also predicted problem solving: positive involvement at home predicted effective, unconflicted problem solving. Negative control at home did not predict problem-solving interaction. Unadaptable temperament was generally related to dependency in problem solving. Several patterns of correlations appeared to be mediated by sex of child, e.g., difficult temperament in boys predicted more effective, unconflicted problem solving, while for girls it predicted more conflict.