COMPUTER-ASSISTED ITEM WRITING—1 (SPELLING ITEMS)1

The current study demonstrates the potential usefulness of the computer as a tool for an item writer. A spelling item type was used for this demonstration, as it seemed to have the fewest facets or dimensions. An analysis was then made of the types of misspellings which are used by writers of spelling items. A set of error-generation rules was developed and a computer program, The MISSPELLER, was written. A sample of words was fed into the computer and a list of misspelled words, separated into previously defined error categories, was created. The list was then evaluated by spelling-test developers and judged to be a useful resource.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF ITEM SAMPLING AND EXAMINEE SAMPLING FOR ESTIMATING TEST NORMS

An empirical comparison of the accuracy of item sampling and examinee sampling in estimating norm statistics. Item samples were composed of 3, 6, or 12 items selected from a total test of 50 multiple-choice vocabulary questions. Overall, the study findings provided empirical evidence that item sampling is approximately as effective as examinee sampling for estimating the population mean and standard deviation. Contradictory trends occurred for lower ability and higher ability student populations in accuracy of estimated means and standard deviations when the number of items administered increased from 3 to 6 to 12. The findings from this study indicate that the variation of sequences of items occurring in item sampling need not have a significant affect on test performance.     

Coordination and Supervision of Counseling Services: An Invitational Approach

This article translates some beliefs of Invitational Education, a self-concept view of human relations, into a framework of supervisory activities that facilitate the coordination of counseling services and promote the professional development of counselors.     

BOOK REVIEWS

B UILDING A P HILOSOPHY OF E DUCATION . By Harry S. Broudy.
I NTERGROUP E DUCATION . By Lloyd and Elaine Cook.
H OW W E F OUGHT FOR OUR S CHOOLS . By Edward Darling in collaboration with members of the staff of the Center for Field Studies of the Harvard Graduate School of Education.
P URITAN S AGE : C OLLECTED W RITINGS OF J ONATHAN E DWARDS . Edited by Vergilius Ferm.
T HE W ORLDS ' G OOD . By Carleton Washburne.     

Higher Education: Past,Present, and Future--A View from UNESCO

What follows is the edited Keynote Address, delivered by Sir John Daniel, the Assistant Director-General for Education at UNESCO, at the opening ceremony of the UNESCO-CEPES International Jubilee Conference on "Higher Education in the Twenty-First Century: Its Role and Contribution to Our Common Advancement", Bucharest, 6-8 September 2002. The text briefly traces the history of the European Centre for Higher Education (UNESCO-CEPES) since its founding in 1972 and the involvement of the author in its activities, as of the 1980s, as a member of its Advisory Committee. He further evokes the involvement of UNESCO itself in education, particularly higher education, an involvement with roots stretching back to League of Nations days. UNESCO-CEPES, the vocation of which was to further co-operation in higher education across ideologically divided Europe, is now working in an entirely new context, both in Europe and worldwide.     

Learning from equations or words

A series of four experiments was designed to study the cognitive load consequences of learning from equations, as compared to words. Cognitive load theory suggests that some instructional procedures require learners to engage in cognitive activities solely because of the manner in which information is presented rather than because of intrinsic characteristics of the material. As a consequence, a heavy extraneous cognitive load that interferes with learning may be imposed. It is suggested that in studying equations with unfamiliar notations, a heavy extraneous cognitive load is generated because mental integration of notations and meanings is required. The results of Experiment 1 supported this suggestion. Experiment 2 found that when an equation format involves simple equations and familiar notations, it is more effective than an equivalent verbal format which requires substantial reading. Experiment 3 showed that when the use of notations becomes automated after extended practice and thus reduces the extraneous cognitive load required to mentally integrate notations and meanings, an equation format can be more effective than a verbal format. Experiment 4 indicated that supplementing a concise equation format with extensive verbal information does not assist learning, because processing the extensive verbal information induces a heavy cognitive load which creates redundancy effects. It was concluded that the efficacy of equations or words may depend, in part, on their cognitive load consequences.     

A Behavioral Model for the Practicum Supervision of Counselor Candidates

This article presents a behavioral model of supervisor behavior for the counseling practicum that involves supervisor, counselor, and client. Five identifiable stages in supervision are presented: (a) the initial session, (b) the development of a facilitative relationship, (c) goal identification and determination of supervisory procedures, (d) the use of supervisory techniques and procedures, and (e) termination and follow-up. This supervisory process between supervisor and counselor is related to the counseling process between counselor and client.