Associative structure of second-order conditioning in humans

Second-order conditioning (SOC; i.e., conditioned responding to S2 as a result of S1–US pairings followed by S2–S1 pairings) is generally explained by either a direct S2→US association or by an associative chain (i.e., S2→S1→US). Previous research found that differences in responses to S2 after S1 was extinguished often depended on the nature of the S2–S1 pairings (i.e., sequential or simultaneous). In two experiments with human participants, we examined the possibility that such differences result from S1 evoking S2 during extinction of S1 following simultaneous but not sequential S2–S1 pairings. This evocation of S2 by S1 following simultaneous pairings may have paired the evoked representation of S2 with absence of the outcome, thereby facilitating mediated extinction of S2. Using sequential S2-S1 pairings, both Experiments 1 and 2 failed to support this account of how extinction of S1 reduced responding to S2. Experiment 1 found that extinguishing S1 reduced responding to S2, while extinguishing S2 had little effect on responses to S1, although forward evocation of S1 during extinction of S2 paired the evoked representation of S1 with absence of the outcome. In Experiment 2, evocation of S2 during S1 nonreinforced trials was prevented because S2–S1 pairings followed (rather than proceeded) S1-alone exposures. Nevertheless, responding to S2 at test mimicked S1 responding. Responding to S2 was high in the context in which S1 had been reinforced and low in the context in which S1 had been nonreinforced. Collectively, these experiments provide additional support for the associative-chain account of SOC.     

Mental health professionals' experiences reporting suspected child abuse and maltreatment

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to provide systematic data on the experiences of mental health professionals (e.g., psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers) who reported cases of suspected child abuse and maltreatment concerning their clients. METHOD: Mail surveys were completed by 258 mental health professionals known to have reported a case of suspected child abuse and maltreatment to the New York State Central Register (NYSCR) in 1993. Subjects were asked to complete a survey describing their experience with making reports, referring to a specific case they reported. RESULTS: About 40% did not inform the client about the limits of confidentiality until reportable material came up. Most clinicians reported that informing clients about the limits of confidentiality did not deter them from entering treatment. Many clinicians learned about abuse/maltreatment after approximately 3 months into therapy. Even very experienced clinicians usually consulted with others before making the report. Clinicians most typically informed the client about the report directly and before it was made, but did not call the NYSCR in the presence of the client. Following the report, most clinicians performed additional activities such as calling clients and scheduling additional sessions. When clients evidenced resistance to continuing therapy, it usually dissipated after a brief period of time. In over 72% of the cases, making the report did not disrupt the relationship and in many instances it was helpful in the therapeutic process; about 27% were continuously resistant or terminated therapy shortly after the report was made. CONCLUSIONS: Implications for practice, training, program development, and research are discussed.     

Use of an orton-gillingham approach to teach a foreign language to dyslexic/learning-disabled students: Explicit teaching of phonology in a second language

Recent research findings suggest that students who have difficulty learning a second language have weaknesses in oral and written native-language skills which affect their performance in the foreign-language classroom. These weaknesses involve understanding the phonological, syntactic, and semantic codes of language. Evidence suggests that dyslexic/learning-disabled and other “at risk” students who struggle in the second language classroom exhibit particular difficulty with the phonological and syntactic codes of the language. The Orton-Gillingham method, a multisensory, structured language approach which adheres to the direct and explicit teaching of phonology, is presented as an alternative to the “natural” communication approaches recently developed by foreign-language educators to teach a second language. A method for adapting this approach for teaching Spanish is described.     

Timing in retroactive interference

Retroactive interference is conventionally viewed as attenuated retrieval of a target association due to the training of a second association between training and testing of the target association. In three experiments in which water-deprived rats were used as subjects, we manipulated the durations of the time between cue termination and outcome onset (Experiment 1), the durations of the target and the interfering cues (Experiment 2), and the durations of the outcome used during target and interfering training (Experiment 3). Greater interference was consistently observed between associations bearing a high degree of similarity in their temporal structure, which suggests that interference occurs between complex representations that encode not only the physical attributes of the stimuli, but also their temporal characteristics.     

Counselling the ‘worried well’ in HIV disease

HIV infection may have a psychological impact not only on those who live with the disease, but also on people who may worry that they have been infected. Counselling people who are worried about infection, but who are HIV negative is an important, yet challenging, dimension of HIV care. It forces counsellors to address how they deal with resistant patients and those who, in some cases, present serious psychological disturbances. This paper discusses the presentation and management of the worried well in HIV disease.     

Symmetrical and asymmetrical sources of variance in temporal generalization

Ten rats were trained in a temporal generalization task (the peak procedure) with variations in the time of reinforcement, the intertrial interval, and the mean and variance of the duration of nonfood trials. There were three types of asymmetry in the temporal generalization gradients: positive skew, secondary rise, and positive asymptote. Asymmetrical gradients can occur as a result of asymmetrical sources of variance, multiplicative combinations of symmetrical sources of variance, and effects of anticipation of the end of a trial and the conditions of the next trial. Ten additional rats were trained with a single time of reinforcement, a limited time of reinforcement availability, long and fixed durations of nonfood trials, and a nonresponse requirement for ending a trial. These conditions markedly reduced all asymmetrical sources of variance and led to very symmetrical gradients. These results demonstrate that none of the asymmetrical sources of variance necessarily has a substantial influence on observed temporal generalization gradients.