A ‘Multimodal Ecology of Text’ in Advanced Level English Language examinations? The incorporation of graphology and ‘embodied’ facsimile texts in unit test papers and their assessment since 2001

In this paper we compare the representation of texts in a sample of Advanced Level English Language examination papers set over the past decade in order to explore the changes in ‘what constitutes English and its assessment’. Prior to the year 2000, texts used in most A Level Language examination papers were usually typeset in a word processed format stripped of original font, layout, accompanying images, and colour, and devoid of the material marks of the texts' ‘history’ and materiality. From 2001, the texts for AQA B examination papers¹ have been reproduced in facsimile form to include the original graphology used. This shift in production in the materiality of embodiment has led to a corresponding shift in assessment in the codes of recognition of what constitutes English text, and what counts as English response. The sample of texts that we discuss present an ‘ecology of text’ and an ‘ecology of texts and literacy practices’ on a ‘continuum of multimodality’: from the heavily edited, word processed, linguistically circumscribed texts of the 1990s examination papers, through to the more visually‐dependent texts of 2004 with their manner of writing, typographic detail, colour, and sometimes even complete with creases and stains. Taking a multimodal approach to these texts, we discuss the implications of this change for what is being required of students analysing texts for examination assessment and more broadly for the subject ‘English’ ‐ ‘what English is’. We also consider how this shift problematizes the English work of students, teachers, examiners, and the institutions in which these agents operate.     

The relative impact of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence upon sport performance: a meta-analysis

This meta-analysis (k = 48) investigated two relationships in competitive sport: (1) state cognitive anxiety with performance and (2) state self-confidence with performance. The cognitive anxiety mean effect size was r = -0.10 (P < 0.05). The self-confidence mean effect size was r = 0.24 (P < 0.001). A paired-samples t-test revealed that the magnitude of the self-confidence mean effect size was significantly greater than that of the cognitive anxiety mean effect size. The moderator variables for the cognitive anxiety-performance relationship were sex and standard of competition. The mean effect size for men (r = -0.22) was significantly greater than the mean effect size for women (r = -0.03). The mean effect size for high-standard competition (r = -0.27) was significantly greater than that for comparatively low-standard competition (r = -0.06). The significant moderator variables for the self-confidence-performance relationship were sex, standard of competition and measurement. The mean effect size for men (r = 0.29) was significantly greater than that for women (r = 0.04) and the mean effect size for high-standard competition (r = 0.33) was significantly greater than that for low-standard competition (r = 0.16). The mean effect size derived from studies employing the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (r = 0.19) was significantly smaller than the mean effect size derived from studies using other measures of self-confidence (r = 0.38). Measurement issues are discussed and future research directions are offered in light of the results.     

NVQs in Publishing: why bother?

National Vocational Qualifications, NVQs, have received a mixed reception in the UK and not least in the publishing industry. The background to the introduction and development of NVQs is covered and the process by which the qualifications are implemented, the procedures for assessment and relevant organisations are described. A Unit from one of the Book Publishing NVQs is presented in detail. It is argued that NVQs are an important part of continuing professional development for those in the publishing industry.     

`Creative mathematics' – real or rhetoric?

The notion of creativity has its natural home in the fine arts, where the artist literally creates something that can be perceived by the senses. The products of mathematical activity are clearly not of this kind, yet some distinguished mathematicians have claimed that mathematics offers considerable scope for creativity. The title of the book under review, and some claims to be found in it, suggest that creativity can indeed be associated with mathematics, and that young children may experience it in the classroom. We suggest that the word creative is being used in rather different senses in these different contexts, yet the meanings associated with the arts, say, are in danger of being applied to mathematical situations for rhetorical purposes.This revised version was published online in September 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Preservice teachers’ expressed awarenesses: emerging threads of retro-spection of learning and pro-spection of teaching

In this paper, we report an enquiry into elementary preservice teachers’ learning, as they engage in doing mathematics for themselves. As a group of researchers working in elementary Initial Teacher Education in English universities, we co-planned and taught sessions on growing pattern generalisation. Following the sessions, interviews of fifteen preservice teachers at two universities focused on their expressed awareness of their approach to the mathematical activity. Preservice teachers’ prospective planning and post-teaching evaluations of similar activities in their classrooms were also examined. We draw on aspects of enactivism and the notion of reflective “spection” in the context of teacher learning, tracing threads between preservice teachers’ retro-spection of learning and pro-spection of teaching. Our analysis indicates that increasing sensitivity to their own embodied processes of generalisation offers opportunities for novice teachers to respond deliberately, rather than to react impulsively, to different pedagogical possibilities. The paper contributes a new dimension to the discussion about the focus of novice elementary school teachers’ retrospective reflection by examining how deliberate retrospective analysis of doing mathematics, and not only of teaching actions, can develop awarenesses that underlie the growth of expertise in mathematics teaching. We argue that engaging preservice teachers in mathematics to support deliberate retrospective analysis of their mathematics learning and prospective consideration of the implications for teaching can enable more critical pedagogical choices.

     

The impact of incorrect examples on learning fractions: A field experiment with 6th grade students

Educational research indicates that error reflection, especially reflection on incorrect examples, has a positive effect on knowledge acquisition. The benefit of error reflections might be explained by the extended knowledge of incorrect strategies and concepts (negative knowledge) which fosters the learning of new content. In a field experiment with a pre-post-design we taught fractions to N = 195 6th grade students and compared two conditions that encouraged reflection on either incorrect or correct examples. We found that incorrect examples supported students’ negative knowledge more than correct examples. However, regarding the knowledge of fractions, only advanced students could benefit from incorrect examples; students with low prior knowledge learned more from correct examples. Even though negative knowledge showed a partial mediation effect for knowledge acquisition, it did not mediate the effect of error reflections on the acquisition of knowledge of fractions. The implications for school instruction are discussed.     

Testing elementary and secondary school students’ ability to perform historical perspective taking: the constructing of valid and reliable measure instruments

Historical reasoning competencies play an important role in history education. However, valid and reliable large-scale measurement instruments to assess these competencies are scarce. This study considers two instruments for measuring students’ ability to perform historical perspective taking (HPT) as a historical reasoning competency. The instruments have been tested for validity and reliability among 1,270 Dutch upper elementary and secondary school students, ranging in age from 10 to 17 years. One instrument offers effective validity and reliability and can map HPT performance among a large and heterogeneous student population. The results show that even upper elementary school students are capable of performing HPT. However, as students age, their ability to perform HPT increases. Differences regarding the ability to perform HPT were also found between educational levels. Pre-university students performed HPT more successfully compared to students at lower educational levels. The results of this study can be used to gain insight into the construct of HPT and into how historical reasoning competencies such as HPT can be measured. Furthermore, the results provide insight into how differences between students, such as age and educational levels, influence the performance of HPT.     

A system-wide professional learning approach about inclusion for teachers in Hong Kong

This study examines changes in attitudes, teaching efficacy, and concerns about inclusive education in a sample of 2361 teachers in Hong Kong who took a professional learning course about inclusive education. Participants completed a questionnaire seeking demographic information and their perceptions about these three aspects of inclusive education both before and after their course. Items were selected from the Sentiments, Attitudes, and Concerns about Inclusive Education Scale Revised and Teacher Efficacy for Inclusive Practices scales that were of relevance to the objectives of this study. The results indicate that in all three areas of acceptance, teaching efficacy, and concerns about inclusive education, positive improvements were made as a result of training, although generally this improvement was strongest in areas that teachers felt were under their direct control. The small amount of change in areas that teachers felt were not under their control may indicate that whatever change initiatives are put in place, they need to be holistic and systemic.     

Relationships between training load,injury, and fitness in sub-elite collision sport athletes

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to develop statistical models that estimate the influence of training load on training injury and physical fitness in collision sport athletes. The incidence of training injuries was studied in 183 rugby league players over two competitive seasons. Participants were assessed for height, body mass, skinfold thickness, vertical jump, 10-m, 20-m and 40-m sprint time, agility, and estimated maximal aerobic power in the off-season, pre-season, mid-season, and end-season. Training load and injury data were summarised into pre-season, early-competition, and late-competition training phases. Individual training load, fitness, and injury data were modelled using a logistic regression model with a binomial distribution and logit link function, while team training load and injury data were modelled using a linear regression model. While physical fitness improved with training, there was no association (P = 0.16 – 0.99) between training load and changes in physical fitness during any of the training phases. However, increases in training load during the early-competition training phase decreased (P = 0.04) agility performance. A relationship (P = 0.01 – 0.04) was observed between the log of training load and odds of injury during each training phase, resulting in a 1.50 – 2.85 increase in the odds of injury for each arbitrary unit increase in training load. Furthermore, during the pre-season training phase there was a relationship (P = 0.01) between training load and injury incidence within the training load range of 155 and 590 arbitrary units. During the early and late-competition training phases, increases in training load of 175 – 620 arbitrary units and 145 – 410 arbitrary units, respectively, resulted in no further increase in injury incidence. These findings demonstrate that increases in training load, particularly during the pre-season training phase, increase the odds of injury in collision sport athletes. However, while increases in training load from 175 to 620 arbitrary units during the early-competition training phase result in no further increase in injury incidence, marked reductions in agility performances can occur. These findings suggest that reductions in training load during the early-competition training phase can reduce the odds of injury without compromising agility performances in collision sport athletes.