Mechanisms of attentional cueing during observational learning to facilitate motor skill acquisition

We examined the effectiveness of different cueing conditions during observational learning of a soccer accuracy pass. Sixty participants (30 males, 30 females) were randomly assigned and stratified by sex into one of six groups: discovery learning, verbal instruction, video model with visual cues, video model with verbal cues, video model with visual and verbal cues, and video model only. Each participant completed eight blocks of 10 trials each, with trial blocks 1 and 2 representing the practice phase (no manipulation), trial blocks 3, 4, 5 and 6 the acquisition phase (manipulation administered) and trial blocks 7 and 8 the retention phase (24 h after acquisition, with no manipulation). Absolute error, variable error and kicking form were recorded. The results indicated that those who used video modelling with visual and verbal cues collectively displayed less error and more appropriate form across acquisition and retention trial blocks compared with other groups. Our findings suggest that verbal information in addition to visual cues enhances perceptual representation and retention of modelled activities to improve task reproduction capabilities. Future research directions are proposed with implications for both direct and indirect perception accounts of skill acquisition through observed behaviours.     

The influence of gender-related beliefs and conceptions of ability on women learning the hockey wrist shot

The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability on perceived and actual competene and patterns of behavior during practice of the hockey wrist shot. Sixty-eight undergraduate women formed four treatment conditions based on their beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability. Four teachers taught across the treatment conditions for a total of 16 learning groups. Data were collected through a three-part questionnaire and from audio-video taping of the entire episode to ascertain the paticipants' competency beliefs, effort, and performance. Gender appropriateness impacted the participants' perceptions of competence and actual performance in the study, while beliefs about conceptions of ability did not produce a significant difference. This study reaffirms that educators must work diligently to combat the stereotypical beliefs many hold with respect to the gender appropriateness of physical activities.     

Arousal, anxiety, and performance: a reexamination of the Inverted-U hypothesis

Until recently, the traditional Inverted-U hypothesis had been the primary model used by sport psychologists to describe the arousal-performance relationship. However, many sport psychology researchers have challenged this relationship, and the current trend is a shift toward a more "multidimensional" view of arousal-anxiety and its effects on performance. In the current study, 104 college-age participants performed a simple response time task while riding a bicycle ergometer. Participants were randomly assigned to one of eight arousal groups (between 20 and 90% of heart rate reserve) and were told they were competing for a cash prize. Prior to the task, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 and Sport Anxiety Scale (SAS) were administered to assess the influence of cognitive and somatic anxiety. As hypothesized, regression analysis revealed a significant quadratic trend for arousal and reaction time. This accounted for 13.2% of the variance, F change (1, 101) = 15.10, p < .001, in performance beyond that accounted for by the nonsignificant linear trend. As predicted by the Inverted-U hypothesis, optimal performance on the simple task was seen at 60 and 70% of maximum arousal. Furthermore, for the simple task used in this study, only somatic anxiety as measured by the SAS accounted for significant variance in performance beyond that accounted for by arousal alone. These findings support predictions of the Inverted-U hypothesis and raise doubts about the utility theories that rely on differentiation of cognitive and somatic anxiety to predict performance on simple tasks that are not cognitively loaded.     

Schema theory (1975): retrospectives and prospectives

A brief commentary is provided on the theoretical assumptions, scholarly impact and continuing influence of the schema theory of motor learning (Schmidt, 1975). The traditional contrasts of schema theory to the coordinative structure or dynamical systems framework are reemphasized, and limitations of the variability of practice experiments noted. A central problem for theories of motor learning is change over time, the basis on which learning is typically defined. Most theories including schema have, however, undervalued the importance of the time-dependent nature of change in deference to the almost exclusive study of the amount of some averaged change in behavioral outcome. The persistent and transitory change(s) in movement and outcome that are observed in action are reflections of multiple time scales of change in a dynamical system.     

First-year medical students' impressions of the Internet

Physicians are becoming aware of the World Wide Web as a resource for medical information. In spring 1999, first-year students at the University of Louisville's School of Medicine were given an assignment to review and evaluate Internet search engines and directories, medicine-specific search engines and meta lists, and health-related Web sites. Students found that general search engines were easier to learn and use and produced better results than either meta medical sites or medicine-specific search engines. Students were very severe in judging the quality of health-related Web sites. Our students' impressions are compared to those of physicians in similar studies. Solutions to the problems of searching the Web for health information are reviewed.     

Statistical analyses in the physiology of exercise and kinanthropometry

Research into the physiology of exercise and kinanthropometry is intended to improve our understanding of how the body responds and adapts to exercise. If such studies are to be meaningful, they have to be well designed and analysed. Advances in personal computing have made available statistical analyses that were previously the preserve of elaborate mainframe systems and have increased opportunities for investigation. However, the ease with which analyses can be performed can mask underlying philosophical and epistemological shortcomings. The aim of this review is to examine the use of four techniques that are especially relevant to physiological studies: (1) bivariate correlation and linear and non-linear regression, (2) multiple regression, (3) repeated-measures analysis of variance and (4) multi-level modelling. The importance of adhering to underlying statistical assumptions is emphasized and ways to accommodate violations of these assumptions are identified.     

Goal orientations, self-determination and pupils' discipline in physical education

In this study, we examined the patterns of goal orientations, perceived competence, reasons for behaving well and self-reported discipline in school physical education among 511 pupils from years 8 and 9 (mean age 14.2 years). Cluster analyses were conducted on two randomly split subsamples to identify homogeneous groups of pupils on these measures of achievement motivation and discipline. Three meaningful clusters emerged for the first subsample, which were then cross-validated for the second subsample. One group of pupils revealed low scores on task and ego orientations, perceived competence and feelings of self-determination about their behaviour in lessons. These perceptions were related to lower ratings of discipline in physical education than pupils who scored more highly on these variables. The highest discipline scores were reported by pupils with high task and ego orientations, perceived competence and feelings of autonomy. The results are useful for teachers and other physical activity leaders in enhancing motivation and disciplined behaviour in young people. Promoting more self-determined reasons for being disciplined, for example, could lead to more orderly classes.