Adult Perception of Emotion Intensity in Human Infant Cries: Effects of Infant Age and Cry Acoustics

The relation between adult perception of emotion intensity in the cries of 1- and 6-month-old infants and the acoustic characteristics of the cries was examined. In the first study, adults who were inexperienced in child care rated 40 cries on 3 emotion intensity scales: anger, fear, and distress. The cries of 6-month-olds were rated as being significantly more intense. Different acoustic variables accounted for emotion intensity ratings for the 2 infant ages. Peak amplitude and noisiness of the cry predicted adult judgments of intensity ratings of 1-month-olds' cries; a measure of amplitude ratio (in 2 frequency bands) was the best predictor of intensity ratings of 6-month-olds' cries. In the second study, parents of infants rated the same cries on the same scales. They also rated the older infants' cries as being more intense. The 2 adult groups did not differ on their ratings, and a regression equation derived from one adult group predicted the other adult group's rating of the same infant age better than it predicted its own ratings for the other infant age. Infant age, and its associated acoustic features, seems to be a more important determinant of adults' perception of emotion intensity than are such adult characteristics as gender or infant-care experience.     

The prevalence and circumstances of child sexual abuse: changes across a decade

OBJECTIVE: This study reports the prevalence of child sexual abuse of African American and European American women and compares the circumstances of these incidents to data collected a decade ago. METHOD: Stratified probability sampling was used to recruit comparable samples of African American and European American women in Los Angeles County for a larger study of women's sexual decision making. Incidents of contact abuse were obtained from women 18 to 36 years old in 1994 and compared to women with those demographic characteristics from a comparable 1984 dataset. The prevalence of abuse, characteristics of the victim, assault, alleged perpetrator, disclosure, and long-term effects by ethnic group affiliation were assessed. RESULTS: Of the total sample, 34% reported at least one incident prior to age 18. Ethnic differences were found with respect to prevalence, location of abuse, and number of incidents of rape. While comparisons made with the 1984 dataset revealed no significant difference in prevalence rates over the 10 year period, changes in circumstances were noted. CONCLUSIONS: Although the prevalence of child sexual abuse in Los Angeles County remained fairly stable, several circumstances of abuse underwent change. These characteristics are discussed in relation to how sexual abuse among ethnically diverse samples in Los Angeles County has changed over a decade and how these differences can help better tailor prevention messages to different communities.     

Confidence and Expectations About Caring for Older People With Dementia: A Cross-Sectional Survey of Student Nurses

Older people who are living with dementia often need healthcare, including hospital admissions, due to additional health conditions. Caring for older people who are living with dementia is, therefore, a core nursing role. This study investigated student nurses’ expectations of, and confidence about, caring for older people with dementia and the effect of students’ age, precourse experience, and their academic year. The design was a cross-sectional survey using questionnaires to collect data. The participants (n = 328), based at one university in England, had all had at least one practice learning placement. Most student nurses (n = 202; 62%) had precourse contact with older people with dementia and had cared for them during the course (n = 291; 89%). The student's academic year significantly affected confidence about caring for older people with dementia (p = .006), but still only 52% (n = 26) of third-year students felt “generally confident.” Precourse contact with older people with dementia had a significant impact on expectations (p = .001) and confidence in caring for people with dementia (p = .002). Students who were >25 years were significantly more likely to have had precourse contact with older people with dementia (p = < .001). Nurse educators should ensure that students entering nurse education appreciate that caring for older people who are living with dementia will be a core part of their role. They must proactively prepare nursing students to care for people with dementia, recognizing that some students have no previous contact, which may affect their confidence and experiences.     

Variations in methods of calculating reliability of duration data

The traditional percentage and correlational methods of estimating reliability of duration recording were compared to the reliability obtained with an event-by-event examination of observers' records in which the actual percentage of time that the observers were in agreement was calculated. While observing standardized videotapes, eight volunteer undergraduate students recorded “studying” using a specific definition and “not eating” using a nonspecific definition. The order of persentation and level of definition specificity were reversed for eight additional volunteer observers. Recordings were done on an event recorder. It was found that the traditional percentage reliability scores were significantly higher than actual (event-by-event) observer agreement for both behaviors, at both levels of definition specificity. Correlational reliability coefficients were significantly greater than event-by-event scores for specific definitions only. Implications of the findings include the possibility that duration recording, which does not involve a permanent product (e.g., when using a stopwatch), may be periodically checked for reliability with an event recorder, or that interval recording may be used.     

The relationship among attributions,divergent thinking,and retention of nonsense syllables and nonrelated words

Students' employment of meaning through cognitive strategies in a retention task was explored in terms of attributional assignment and/or divergent thinking. Students were randomly assigned to either a list of nonsense syllables or nonrelated words. Attributional assignment was measured by Lefcourt's Multidimensional-Multiattributional Causality Scales (MMCS – IV); divergent thinking was measured by Guilford's tests of Fluency, Flexibility, and Originality. A questionnaire assessing students' beliefs regarding success and failure was also administered. No relationship was found among attributional assignment as measured by the MMCS-IV, divergent thinking, and retention. Strategy use was not related to retention. Students' attributional beliefs regarding failure were predictive of retention for the nonsense syllables. Discussion suggests the need to distinguish between tactic and strategy through analysis of metacognitive processes. Interpretation of the results may indicate that the divergent-thinking measures were not sensitive enough and/or the retention task did not require these divergent-thinking skills.     

Current Research on Child Maltreatment: Implications for Educators

The increasing rate of child abuse and neglect is a special concern for educators who are legally mandated reporters of suspected maltreatment, are often the first to identify and refer children who have been harmed, are in contact with parents and are aware of the family conditions contributing to child maltreatment, and who must often work closely with other professionals in their efforts to support child victims and prevent further abuse. Moreover, children's emotional or behavioral problems, learning disabilities, or other difficulties often reflect broader problems that are associated with abuse or neglect. Consequently, understanding the causes and consequences of child maltreatment, and contemporary child protection efforts, is essential to educators in their efforts to assist victimized children. This article surveys current research on child maltreatment with particular attention to the challenges of child protection, the multidimensionality of child maltreatment (distinguishing physical abuse, physical neglect, sexual abuse, and psychological maltreatment), and hopeful new avenues for prevention. The implications of this research for educational professionals are emphasized.