What everybody knows about children: Mothers' ideas on early childhood

A sample of 364 mothers were interviewed with a questionnaire investigating 4 topics: developmental conceptions, socialization rules, parental social roles and sexual stereotypes. A subsample of 107 of the same mothers was then submitted to an attitude scale testing the importance they attributed to 19 traits of children's behaviour and the influence they perceived as having on the development of the same traits. The results give evidence of a social representation shared by our sample; this representation refers to a traditional way of rearing children and to a traditional division of parental social roles. The mothers' working positions and levels of instructions are found to discriminate as to their agreement on such a view. Analyses on the degree of importance and of perceived influence on the behavioural traits confirm the same results, but they also define a new emerging image of the child, which stresses different values from the traditional ones.     

The student–teacher relationship quality in children with selective mutism

Selective mutism (SM) is a rare anxiety disorder that compromises children's daily life during critical periods of early development. Because school is a prime context for the manifestation of the disorder, the aim of this study was to investigate the quality of the student–teacher relationship and its effects on behavior and work, and on social and relational skills. The sample consisted of 75 children—15 were affected by SM, with 60 in the control group—and 15 teachers. The results showed greater difficulty on the teacher's part to establish a relationship based on affective closeness with a child affected by SM, compared to that with unaffected children. Nevertheless, an encouraging picture emerges of the inclusion and integration of the child with SM among peers and therefore in the class group.     

The impact of heating, lighting and people in re-using historical buildings: a case study

The impact of lighting, heating and people in re-using historical buildings are discussed for the case study concerning the ceremony room (i.e. the Giant Hall) of a mediaeval palace in Padova. The Hall has substantially four major problems for conservation: (i) the impact of heating, lighting and people when the room is used; (ii) many cracks on the oak panels of the coffered ceiling; (iii) the soiling by dust and soot particles deposited on the frescoes; (iv) the stained glass windows. A microclimate study was performed to know the impact of the environmental variables, and the use of the room, on the artworks preserved inside. The study has proved the impact of the lamps (both incandescence and compact fluorescent lamps) on the ceiling, the penetration of external air in the room, the heat and the moisture released by people, the impact of sunshine through windows and the scatter diagram of the daily cycles in temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH). During winter concerts, the strips of lead which are wrapped round the edge of the cut glass pieces in stained glass windows easily drop below the dew point and form condensation, starting corrosion. A discussion concerns the allowed variability, which should not exceed risk thresholds. A safe interval can be established within the area determined by the most frequent T and RH natural cycles. In fact, both of the cycles were compatible with the artefacts, or the artefacts were already damaged to allow the exceeding dimensional changes. Attention should be paid in the variability external to this area, especially approaching or exceeding a limit equal to twice the mode of the natural variability.     

Students' teaching career expectations by gender and ability levels in science and math: The role of salary and numeracy skills

Understanding what factors foster young people's aspirations to work as teachers is critical for designing effective recruitment policies, and for ensuring that enough youngsters enter the teaching profession. We examine what factors explain between-country differences in the percentage of 15-year-old students who expect to work as teachers as adults. We focus on two factors: (1) the salaries teachers can expect to earn compared to professionals in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM); and (2) the skill levels teachers have compared to STEM professionals. Relative salaries indicate if (and to what extent) the financial returns associated with teaching careers are higher or lower than professional STEM careers dominated by men. Relative skills highlight the investment in human capital that teachers are expected to make to be able to enter the profession, as well as the social and cultural status that is associated with teaching. We used data from 29 countries that participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment and the Programme for International Assessment of Adult Competencies. In countries where teacher salaries and numeracy skills were high compared to those commanded by STEM professionals, gender gaps in teaching career expectations were smaller. High-ability students in science and mathematics were more likely to expect to work as teachers in countries where teachers have comparatively higher numeracy skills. Our findings show that when teacher salaries are competitive in relationship to the salaries of STEM professionals, more students overall expect to work as teachers. However, whilst low- and middle-performing students in science and mathematics were attracted by economic incentives, high-performing students in science and mathematics were not.     

Sprint running: how changes in step frequency affect running mechanics and leg spring behaviour at maximal speed

The purpose of this study was to investigate the changes in selected biomechanical variables in 80-m maximal sprint runs while imposing changes in step frequency (SF) and to investigate if these adaptations differ based on gender and training level. A total of 40 athletes (10 elite men and 10 women, 10 intermediate men and 10 women) participated in this study; they were requested to perform 5 trials at maximal running speed (RS): at the self-selected frequency (SF_s) and at SF ±15% and ±30%SF_s. Contact time (CT) and flight time (FT) as well as step length (SL) decreased with increasing SF, while k_vert increased with it. At SF_s, k_leg was the lowest (a 20% decrease at ±30%SF_s), while RS was the largest (a 12% decrease at ±30%SF_s). Only small changes (1.5%) in maximal vertical force (F_max) were observed as a function of SF, but maximum leg spring compression (ΔL) was largest at SF_s and decreased by about 25% at ±30%SF_s. Significant differences in F_max, Δy, k_leg and k_vert were observed as a function of skill and gender (P < 0.001). Our results indicate that RS is optimised at SF_s and that, while k_vert follows the changes in SF, k_leg is lowest at SF_s.     

A polymeric micro-optical interface for flow monitoring in biomicrofluidics

We describe design and miniaturization of a polymeric optical interface for flow monitoring in biomicrofluidics applications based on polydimethylsiloxane technology, providing optical transparency and compatibility with biological tissues. Design and ray tracing simulation are presented as well as device realization and optical analysis of flow dynamics in microscopic blood vessels. Optics characterization of this polymeric microinterface in dynamic experimental conditions provides a proof of concept for the application of the device to two-phase flow monitoring in both in vitro experiments and in vivo microcirculation investigations. This technology supports the study of in vitro and in vivo microfluidic systems. It yields simultaneous optical measurements, allowing for continuous monitoring of flow. This development, integrating a well-known and widely used optical flow monitoring systems, provides a disposable interface between live mammalian tissues and microfluidic devices making them accessible to detection∕processing technology, in support or replacing standard intravital microscopy.     

The Impact of the National Endowment for the Arts in the United States: Institutional and Sectoral Effects on Private Funding

This paper examines the impact of the National Endowment for the Arts on private donations to the arts. The aim of the analysis is to assess whether public funding generates a crowding effect on private giving. We distinguish between institutional and sectoral crowding phenomena and discuss their possible implications.We used both a qualitative approach and an econometric model to estimate the effect of NEA introduction and appropriations on donations. Our results suggest that at the institutional level NEA grants do not generally induce donations to recipients while at the sectoral level appropriations and private giving are independent. The introduction of the agency appears to have caused a decrease in donations.