Universal Service in a Ubiquitous Digital Network

Before there was the digital divide there was the analog divide– and universal service was the attempt to close that analogdivide. Universal service is becoming ever more complex in terms ofregulatory design as it becomes the digital divide. In order to evaluatethe promise of the next generation Internet with respect to the digitaldivide this work looks backwards as well as forwards in time. Byevaluating why previous universal service mechanisms failed andsucceeded this work identifies specific characteristics ofcommunications systems – in particular in billing and managinguncertainty – and argues that these characteristics underliesuccess or failure in terms of technological ubiquity. Developing a setof characteristics of services rather than a set of services is afundamental break with the tradition of universal service. In fact, theimplications of our proposal is that basic characteristics in theoffering of the service rather than the absolute price are critical toclose the digital divide: certainty of total charge, ability to avoiddeposits or disconnection via best effort service, and payer-basedcontrol of all charges. While all of these principles sound obvious infact none of these hold in the telephony network. Universal service hasevolved from common carriage (serve all with no discrimination) to aright to basic services (100% penetration). Universal service isnow discussed as the digital divide, as the access to information asopposed to services becomes increasingly critical. However, we arediscussing in this paper access to the bits and the network rather thanaccess to the information (or intellectual property) once connected. Theprovision of universal service is seen as a technical problem only in thatthe technology costs money – universal service debates have longbeen the domain of economists. Yet the design of protocols has been thedomain of engineers, the building of systems the corporate domain, andthe discussion of equity the interest of ethicists. The design ofprotocols can define the parameters of the corporate decision-makers,the variables of the economist, and the questions for the ethicist. Thedesign decisions made at the fundamental levels can make communicationsequity more or less likely. In this work I focus on the design ofprotocols for the next generation Internet, protocols which willfundamentally change the best-effort nature of Internet services.Building on the economic and ethnographic work of others I argue thatthe effects of protocols adoption on universal service can be predictedto some degree. By examination of past and current technologies Iexamine a set of technical mechanisms to determine how such mechanismsmight harm or enhance universal service. I define each mechanism (e.g.denial of entry) and offer observations about each particularmechanism's implicit pricing assumptions. I close with a discussion ofinterest to ethicists and regulators on evaluating communicationsprotocols with respect to universal access. Protocols for developingmultiple qualities of service for packet-switched networks have focusedon economic efficiency (e.g. Mackie-Mason, 1995; Choi, Stahl &Winston, 1997; Shapiro & Varian, 1998), billing to encouragewidespread adoption of network innovations (e.g. Xie & Sirbu, 1985)and billing in a manner consistent with the underlying network (e.g.Clark, 1996). Here we examine a set of protocols which include varyingquality of service mechanisms with respect to the compatibility of theprotocols with universal access.     

Teachers as Disempowered and Demoralised Moral Agents: School Board Management and Teachers in Hong Kong

This study argues that teachers are disempowered and demoralised moral agents. Specifically, it uses a qualitative study of Hong Kong teachers to show that teachers’ agency in the pursuit of the moral goal of education is socially disempowered. The study shows that although teachers are committed to the moral goal of education, the obstacles to attaining this goal result in demoralisation. The difficulties consist of technical disempowerment (deprivation of power over one’s labour) and cognitive disempowerment (deprivation of power to identify the instructional value of teachers’ work), which are induced by managerialist educational reforms and school administration.     

The economics of student time

A major feature of almost all of the recent national calls for educational reform has been the recommendation to increase the amount of instructional time through lengthening the school day and school year, assignment of more homework, and expanding the proportion of the school day devoted to instruction. The purpose of this paper is to provide an analysis of the allocation of student time from the perspective of economic theory. Under a reasonable set of assumptions, the economic model that is employed predicts a rather small increase in educational achievement relative to rather substantial increases in instructional time. These predictions are found to comport well with the available empirical evidence. The policy consequences of the analysis are also examined.     

Vocational education and productivity: A case study of the Beijing General Auto Industry Company

This paper examines the economic rationale for the current vocationalization of secondary education in China by comparing the performance of vocational education graduates and general education graduates in the workplace. It uses a model that recognizes the importance of work effort and group dynamics on production, employs a more direct measure of productivity, and presents an empirical study in the context of the current educational and workplace reforms in China. Based on data from the Beijing Auto Industry Company, China, the study finds that vocational-technical education graduates engaged in factory work relevant to their previous training were more satisfied with their job and were more productive than general education graduates. It also found that a worker's education had a lesser impact on productivity when the worker performed in a more co-operative environment.     

Acculturation strategies, social support, and cross-cultural adaptation: a mediation analysis

Previous acculturation research has established the influences of acculturation strategies and social support on cross-cultural adaptation. The present study attempted to elaborate these direct associations by proposing that social support and the use of the integration and marginalization strategies might affect psychological adaptation indirectly, via their influences on sociocultural adaptation. Two hundred and twelve Mainland Chinese students studying at a university in Hong Kong completed measures of psychological and sociocultural adaptation, the integration and marginalization strategies, and social support. Analyses using structural equation modeling (SEM) showed that sociocultural adaptation significantly mediated the effects of integration, marginalization, and social support on psychological adaptation. The direct impacts of social support and the two acculturation strategies on psychological adaptation were not significant. A multigroup SEM analysis revealed no gender differences in the full mediation model. Implications of the findings are discussed.     

Factors associated with physical activity referral completion and health outcomes

Abstract

Participant socio-demographic characteristics and referral reason were investigated in relation to completion and health outcomes in a Primary Care Physical Activity Referral Scheme using a prospective population-based longitudinal design. Participants (n = 1735) were recruited over a 2-year period. A three-stage binary logistic regression analysis identified the factors associated with the outcomes of completion (model 1), body mass reduction (model 2) and blood pressure reduction (model 3). Participant's age, gender, ethnicity, occupation and referral reason were the independent variables for model 1, with the variables of completion added in model 2 and completion and body mass reduction added in model 3. Logistic regression analysis revealed that increasing age is associated with the likelihood of completion (Odds Ratio, OR = 1.019; Confidence Interval, CI = 1.008–1.030; P = 0.001). Participants with a pulmonary condition are less likely to complete (OR = 0.546; CI = 0.346–0.860; P < 0.01) compared to those referred for cardiovascular conditions. For ethnicity, in comparison to the white category, patients in the mixed category are significantly more likely to achieve a reduction in body mass (OR = 3.991; CI = 1.191–13.373; P < 0.05). Those who complete are more likely to achieve a reduction in body mass (OR = 3.541; CI = 2.721–4.608; P < 0.001). When compared to the unemployed category, the skilled manual category had an increased likelihood of achieving a reduction in blood pressure (OR = 1.875; CI = 1.044–3.227; P < 0.05). Participants who completed also demonstrated an increased likelihood of a reduction in blood pressure (OR = 1.680; CI = 1.250–2.003; P < 0.001). Furthermore, those participants who achieved a reduction in body mass had an increased likelihood of achieving a reduction in blood pressure (OR = 1.292; CI = 1.008–1.641; P < 0.05). Completion is associated with health outcomes of reduced body mass and blood pressure.     

The quest for higher education by the Chinese middle class: retrenching social mobility?

This article examines how and why the Chinese second-generation middle class, who are unable to obtain admission in China’s premier universities, turn their back on other public universities and instead attend private universities in their country. It finds that their parents capitalize on their privileged guanxi (connections) to send their children to private universities and then study abroad to secure a generational reproduction of their class status and mobility. The Chinese new middle class families look upon joint-partnership private universities as the stepping stone for overseas study. In addition, this article examines how extant Western class theories, including Weberian, Neo-Weberian, and Bourdieuian theories, cannot provide an adequate account of class formation and the generational stratification in present-day China. To explain this reproduction of class in contemporary China, this paper explores how and why the Maoist social institutions of danwei (work unit) and hukou (household registration) still matter in post-reform China in determining middle class’s life chance. Seen in this light, the progenies of cadres and skilled professionals are the main beneficiaries of economic reform.     

Overcoming Obstacles: Approaches to Dealing with Problem Pupils

Hayley Martin, Teacher of Physical Education at Beacon Community College, Crowborough, and Sid Hayes, Senior Lecturer in Physical Education, Faculty of Education, Sports and Leisure, University of Brighton, consider the effects of feedback to pupils, and identify successful strategies for dealing with problem behaviour.     

Physical Activity in Former Competitive Athletes: The Physical and Psychological Impact of Musculoskeletal Injury

Although competitive athletes exceed recommendations for physical activity while they are competing in sport, this does not necessarily translate into regular physical activity after retirement from sport. Research suggested the nature of competitive sport participation may not be conducive to lifelong physical activity. We propose one element of competitive sport participation that may impede physical activity post-retirement is injury. We propose that Vela and Denegar’s model of transient disablement in the physically active with musculoskeletal injuries (DPA) may be appropriate to examine the long-term consequences of sport-related injury—particularly with respect to physical activity disablement. Based on our review of literature, we propose the physical and psychological effects of injuries in sports present unique long-term barriers to physical activity in former competitive athletes. Future research could use the DPA as a foundation for assessing the long-term implications of sport-related injuries—particularly with respect to physical activity.