Offside decision making of assistant referees in the English Premier League: Impact of physical and perceptual-cognitive factors on match performance

Abstract

In the present study, we investigated the accuracy of offside judgements of assistant referees in the English Premier League. The moment in the match, the position and movement speed of the assistant referee, attacker and second-last defender, together with the angle of view for the assistant referee were all considered to underlie incorrect decisions. The error rate was 17.5% (868 of 4960 situations). As the English assistant referees tended not to signal in doubtful situations (c = 0.91), there was an overall bias towards non-flag errors (773 non-flag errors vs. 95 flag errors). The flash-lag hypothesis could explain all flag errors, whereas the optical-error hypothesis could explain a proportion of the non-flag errors (45.4%). Fatigue, movement speed, and angle of view did not have a detrimental effect on offside decision making. In conclusion, there were fewer flag errors than in the 2002 and 2006 FIFA World Cups, whereas the number of non-flag errors rose. The increased awareness of factors involved in offside decision making and the instructions to give the benefit of the doubt to attackers could have contributed to this situation.     

Energy turnover during 24 hours and 6 days of adventure racing

Abstract

Energy turnover was assessed in two conditions of mixed ultra-endurance exercise. In Study 1, energy expenditure and intake were measured in nine males in a laboratory over 24 h. In Study 2, energy expenditure was assessed in six males during an 800-km Adventure race (mean race time 152.5 h). Individual correlations between heart rate and oxygen uptake ([Vdot]O₂) were established during pre-tests when kayaking, cycling, and running. During exercise, energy expenditure was estimated from continuous heart rate recordings. Heart rate and [Vdot]O₂ were measured regularly during fixed cycling work rates to correct energy expenditure for drift in oxygen pulse. Mean energy expenditure was 18,050 ± 2,390 kcal (750 ± 100 kcal · h^?1) and 80,000 ± 18,000 kcal (500 ± 100 kcal · h^?1) in Study 1 and Study 2 respectively, which is higher than previously reported. Energy intake in Study 1 was 8,450 ± 1,160 kcal, resulting in an energy deficit of 9,590 ± 770 kcal. Body mass decreased in Study 1 (?2.3 ± 0.8 kg) but was unchanged in Study 2. Fat mass decreased in Study 2 (?2.3 ± 1.5 kg). In Study 1, muscle glycogen content decreased by only 60%. Adventure racing requires a high energy expenditure, with large inter-individual variation. A large energy deficit is caused by inadequate energy intake, possibly due to suppressed appetite and gastrointestinal problems. The oxygen pulse, comparing start to 12 h of exercise and beyond, increased by 10% and 5% in Study 1 and Study 2 respectively. Hence, estimations of energy expenditure from heart rate recordings should be corrected according to this drift.     

Understanding the complexity of teacher reflection in action research

Reflection in action research is a complex matter, as is action research itself. In recent years, complexity science has regularly been called upon in order to more thoroughly understand the complexity of action research. The present article investigates the benefits that complexity science may yield for reflection in action research. This article begins by explicating the sense in which the complexity of reflection in action research involves the role of values and existential knowledge in education. The gap between theory and practice is also explored. On the basis of a number of common features of complex systems (heterogeneous, open, dynamic, non-linear, adaptive, and co-adaptive), the sense in which reflection can be regarded as a complex system is discussed. To this end, the features of complex systems are translated into features of reflection in action research, which, in turn, are illustrated with examples from recent publications on reflection in action research. The aim of this analysis is to make reflection in action research more understandable and manageable. In line with this, it is argued that room for insecurity and unpredictability, combined with an explicit consideration of reflection as a complex system, contributes to the use of complexity as a stimulus for new learning.     

Reformation of VET and demands on teachers’ subject knowledge – Swedish vocational teachers’ recurrent participation in a national CPD initiative

This study investigates continuing professional development (CPD) of vocational teachers, with a focus on recurrent participation. Vocational teachers need to be competent as teachers and in relation to their vocational teaching subject. Reformation of Swedish vocational education in order to strengthen the working-life connection imposes demands on teachers to have up-to-date knowledge about the vocations related to their vocational subjects. To support the reform, vocational teachers have been offered to participate in a new national CPD initiative targeting their vocational competence. The study concerns participation in this initiative. Drawing on a socio-cultural perspective, vocational teachers’ CPD implies boundary-crossing between school and working-life. Theory concerning adults’ participation in education is considered relevant to understand conditions for such boundary-crossing, and learning, among vocational teachers. The article specifically investigates patterns in vocational teachers’ recurrent participation, which is expected to clarify the factors influencing further participation in professional development. The strongest predictor of recurrent participation, when adjusting for the influence of other factors, is the type of municipality that the teacher comes from, with low populated municipalities having the lowest likelihood of participation. Furthermore, recurrent participation is more likely by participating teachers from adult education or from privately owned schools, and by male teachers.     

What disengages doctoral students in the biological and environmental sciences from their doctoral studies?

This study explored the causes of student disengagement from their doctoral studies in the biological and environmental sciences. The data came from interviews of 40 doctoral students (male?=?15, female?=?25) and underwent qualitative analysis for content. Our results showed that doctoral studies provide multiple contexts for disengagement, such as the scholarly community and supervision, while doctoral students’ sense of distress, cynicism and inefficacy emerged as central components of disengagement. The study identified isolation, indifference, and lack of support and constructive feedback as sources of cynicism, while distress and inefficacy were more often related to failure or lack of progress in research. Our findings indicate that the source of disengagement can vary not only between individuals, but also between the academic activities at hand. Thus, while promoting an engaging doctoral experience, awareness of what typically triggers disengagement in the doctoral journey is vital.     

A dynamic learning concept in early years’ education: a possible way to prevent schoolification

In early childhood education and care, Nordic social pedagogy approach is challenged by a learning orientation that often results in unproductive ‘either/or’ thinking. Therefore, based on the two approaches and by analysing several dimensions of Froebel’s ideas and prevailing social-historical activity (play) theory, the author deduces four generally accepted play criteria that form the basis for the construction of a dynamic and play-based learning concept that has the three following cornerstones as focal points: (1) learning happens in activities where the child is an active participant and interacts and communicates with other people; (2) meaningful activities pave the way for children’s learning; these are activities where the child’s motive aligns with the goal of the activity; and (3) learning is seen as a productive and creative activity characterised by imagination.     

论"现行规范汉字"的定义及其特征

对“规范汉字”概念的提出,以及当前学术界各家对该概念定义的描述总结,综合、比较了各种定义内涵与外延,进而概括出现行“规范汉字”较为科学的定义,并总结其性质特征。以达成对现行“规范汉字”定义的理论共识。     

长白山地区蒙古栎光合特性

基于单叶尺度上的光强－光合响应以及CO2－光合响应测定，对长白山地区蒙古栎成树和幼树的光合特性分别进行了研究．结果表明，蒙古栎成树的光补偿点（Lcp）为21μmol/m2/s，光饱和点（Lsp）为1564μmol/m2/s，表观量子效率（a）为0.045μmol/mol；幼树的Lcp、Lsp、a以及CO2补偿点、饱和点分别为29μmol/m2/s、1581μmol/m2/s、0.049μmol/mol、73μmol/mol、625μmol/mol．幼树和成树具有相似的光响应特征，但前者的光合同化能力要高于后者．蒙古栎具有典型的喜光性，但对高光的利用效率要低于弱光．     

Disparity in practice: diverse strategies among teachers implementing interactive whiteboards into teaching practice in two Swedish primary schools

This paper reports on a project aimed at identifying and exploring the development and implementation processes of teaching practices with interactive whiteboards (IWBs) in two Swedish K-6 schools. The purpose of the project was to generate results and insights of value when preparing student teachers for professional use of IWBs and to give school leaders guidelines when implementing IWBs. A range of methods were used to collect rich and varied empirical materials in this exploratory project. Judging from our data, it was obvious that the implementation process of IWBs, just like other information and communication technology initiatives, is very technology-oriented, but also dependent on attitudes. Over the course of time in the project, different strategies emerged among the teachers regarding whether and how they used the IWBs in their lectures. It also became increasingly clear during the study that there is a distinction between technical interactivity and pedagogical interactivity. Our results further suggest that training is needed when introducing these boards for future users. This training should include both technical instructions and pedagogical discussions.