Uses and Abuses of Achievement Test Scores

Are variations in test-preparation practices from school to school undermining the meaningfulness of achievement test results? Is there pressure to raise achievement test scores by the use of educationally unsound practices? What uses of achievement test scores are most common? Do teachers and administrators have reasonably accurate views of test score uses?     

Education,Enlightenment and Positivism: The Vienna Circle's Scientific World-Conception Revisited

The scientific world-conception is properly understood as an enlightenmentphilosophy only if the current reassessment of the historical Vienna Circle(as opposed to the caricature still prevalent in the popular philosophicalimagination) is once more extended to comprehend not only its thorough-goingepistemological anti-foundationalism, but also the voluntarist point of its ethical`non-cognitivism'. That is to say, the scientific world-conception is properlyunderstood as the opposite of village positivism only if it is recognized that it hasan `other' and that the scientific world-conception was meant by its proponentsto perform its enlightenment work only in conjunction with that other of scientificreason – ethical will and willing. Scientific reason cannot determine all there is to determine, it cannot determine the will. In this sense, there was, pace villagepositivism, more than scientific reason dreamt of. Scientific reason was not madeabsolute: rather, its (self-) clarification was required if a satisfactory view of its placein `life' was to be attained.     

The use of recovery methods post-exercise

Competitive soccer engages many of the body's systems to a major extent. The musculoskeletal, nervous, immune and metabolic systems are stressed to a point where recovery strategies post-exercise become influential in preparing for the next match. Intense activity at a 7-day training camp causes participants to experience lowered concentrations of non-killer cells and T-helper cells. Two consecutive games in 24 h produce disturbances in the testosterone-cortisol ratio. When competitive schedules are congested, the recovery process should be optimized for performance capabilities to be restored to normal as soon as possible. There is evidence that glycogen stores are reduced near to depletion at the end of a soccer game and that a diet high in carbohydrates can aid recovery. Water alone is not the best means of restoring body fluids, since carbohydrate-electrolyte drinks display better intestinal absorption and reduce urine output. Some relief from muscle soreness may be achieved by means of a warm-down. Deep-water running regimens can replace conventional physical training in the days after competition. Massage, cryotherapy and alternative therapies have not been shown to be consistently effective. It is concluded that optimizing recovery post-exercise depends on a combination of factors that incorporate a consideration of individual differences and lifestyle factors. The procedures to facilitate recovery processes should start immediately the game or training finishes. Match administrators and tournament planners should consider the stressful consequences for players in periods of congested fixtures and alleviate the physiological strain as far as possible by allowing 72 h between competitive games. This frequency of competition is unlikely to be sustainable in the long term.