Piecing Together the Puzzle of Pictorial Representation: How Jigsaw Puzzles Index Metacognitive Development

Jigsaw puzzles are ubiquitous developmental toys in Western societies, used here to examine the development of metarepresentation. For jigsaw puzzles this entails understanding that individual pieces, when assembled, produce a picture. In Experiment 1, 3- to 5-year-olds (N = 117) completed jigsaw puzzles that were normal, had no picture, or comprised noninterlocking rectangular pieces. Pictorial puzzle completion was associated with mental and graphical metarepresentational task performance. Guide pictures of completed pictorial puzzles were not useful. In Experiment 2, 3- to 4-year-olds (N = 52) completed a simplified task, to choose the correct final piece. Guide-use associated with age and specifically graphical metarepresentation performance. We conclude that the pragmatically natural measure of jigsaw puzzle completion ability demonstrates general and pictorial metarepresentational development at 4 years.     

Incorporating Uncertainty Into Parallel Analysis for Choosing the Number of Factors via Bayesian Methods

A number of psychometricians have suggested that parallel analysis (PA) tends to yield more accurate results in determining the number of factors in comparison with other statistical methods. Nevertheless, all too often PA can suggest an incorrect number of factors, particularly in statistically unfavorable conditions (e.g., small sample sizes and low factor loadings). Because of this, researchers have recommended using multiple methods to make judgments about the number of factors to extract. Implicit in this recommendation is that, when the number of factors is chosen based on PA, uncertainty nevertheless exists. We propose a Bayesian parallel analysis (B-PA) method to incorporate the uncertainty with decisions about the number of factors. B-PA yields a probability distribution for the various possible numbers of factors. We implement and compare B-PA with a frequentist approach, revised parallel analysis (R-PA), in the contexts of real and simulated data. Results show that B-PA provides relevant information regarding the uncertainty in determining the number of factors, particularly under conditions with small sample sizes, low factor loadings, and less distinguishable factors. Even if the indicated number of factors with the highest probability is incorrect, B-PA can show a sizable probability of retaining the correct number of factors. Interestingly, when the mode of the distribution of the probabilities associated with different numbers of factors was treated as the number of factors to retain, B-PA was somewhat more accurate than R-PA in a majority of the conditions.     

Loglinear analysis of cross-classified ordinal data: applications in developmental research

This article provides an introduction to loglinear analysis of cross-classification tables, including tables with nominal and ordinal variables. Loglinear models offer several advantages over the more commonly used chi-square test of independence, including the ability to analyze 3-, 4-, and higher-way interactions, the ability to determine whether the association between variables is linear or nonlinear, and the ability to interpret scale scores assigned to categories of an ordinal variable. After a review of the advantages of loglinear modeling, the chi-square test of independence is compared with the loglinear model of independence. This comparison serves to introduce the notation and terminology of loglinear modeling. The overall strategy of loglinear modeling is introduced next; then special loglinear models for ordinal data are reviewed. Each model discussed in the article is applied to data from the developmental literature.     

PILOT STUDY: SITUATIONAL EVALUATION AND BASE‐LINE TECHNIQUES IN ARTICULATION THERAPY

The problem of this study was to consider how a speech therapist can adequately evaluate the effectiveness of therapy. The unique feature of this pilot study was the use of a pre‐ and post‐test administration at the beginning and end of each therapy session. An error sound of the subject was selected on the basis of maturity and stimulability. Ten correct or incorrect responses to this error sound were tabulated for each session, establishing a base‐line on the initial performance and enabling progress checks. The number of correct responses during each therapy session increased as the number of sessions progressed. Increased efficiency could have been attributed to the effectiveness of previous sessions.     

Time and response matching with topographically different responses

Four pigeons were exposed to several nonindependent concurrent variable-interval schedules of reinforcement. One schedule component required a keypecking response; the other component required a treadlepressing response. The birds matched the ratio of their behavior (as measured by responses and time) between the two topographically different responses to the ratio of reinforcement in those two components. When additional foods not contingent on a keypeck or treadle-press were then added, the birds matched time spent in the components to total rates of food delivered in those components; response matching was somewhat disrupted. The matching law, developed under concurrent variable-interval schedules requiring similar responses, can thus account for choice behavior involving topographically different responses.     

The development of a hypertext-based tutor for Geographical Information Systems

Experience gained in the construction of the world's first Geographical Information Systems tutor, ARCDEMO, emphasised the importance of accommodating different learning strategies. ARCDEMO, while highly successful, suffered from static graphical displays, a single pre-determined access path, and an overall design which restricted its scope in use. The Geographical Information System Tutor (GIST) was developed to address these problems using Apple's object-orientated HyperCard software. GIST incorporates a 'point-and-click' interface with graphical cues to initiate operations which include animated demonstrations, step-by-step illustrative graphics and graphical displays capable of user modification. The system was designed with two alternative access modes, serial or browsing , to allow different classes of user to work through the material in their preferred fashion. The use of GIST in undergraduate and short course teaching has shown how users respond well to the interface and find graphical explanations easy to follow.     

Overcoming prejudices: An invitational approach

This article offers an invitational model for overcoming prejudices. The proposed model is based on Haberman's (1994) five-step approach to facing prejudices, which includes (1) analyzing prejudices; (2) seeking the sources of the beliefs; (3) examining the benefits of prejudice; (4) considering the effects of prejudices; and (5) planning to eliminate prejudices. Purkey's (1992) five-level conflict-management process adapted to prejudice serves as the five-part action plan in Haberman's fifth step. The combination of these two models yields an invitational approach with five parts: (1) perceiving concern, (2) conferring with oneself; (3) consulting with colleagues; (4) confronting the crisis; and (5) combating prejudices. Practical questions and examples are provided to clarify each step. We shall overcome, We shall overcome, We shall overcome someday. If in our hearts we do believe, We shall overcome someday.     

Differences in College Access and Choice Among Racial/Ethnic Groups: Identifying Continuing Barriers

This study focuses on the college application behaviors of students from various racial/ethnic groups in order to understand differences in access and college choice. Student characteristics, predispositions, academic abilities, and income levels were taken into account in our analyses. We analyzed data from the National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) and the Beginning Postsecondary Student Longitudinal Study (BPS) and found significant group differences in preparation behaviors, college application behavior (number of colleges to which students applied), and attendance at their first choice of institution. The results of this study call attention to the need for campuses to evaluate the potential effects of policy decisions that may impact student choice for different populations of students.