Measuring Growth With Vertical Scales

A vertical score scale is needed to measure growth across multiple tests in terms of absolute changes in magnitude. Since the warrant for subsequent growth interpretations depends upon the assumption that the scale has interval properties, the validation of a vertical scale would seem to require methods for distinguishing interval scales from ordinal scales. In taking up this issue, two different perspectives on educational measurement are contrasted: a metaphorical perspective and a classical perspective. Although the metaphorical perspective is more predominant, at present it provides no objective methods whereby the properties of a vertical scale can be validated. In contrast, when taking a classical perspective, the axioms of additive conjoint measurement can be used to test the hypothesis that the latent variable underlying a vertical scale is quantitative (supporting ratio or interval properties) rather than merely qualitative (supporting ordinal or nominal properties). The application of such an approach is illustrated with both a hypothetical example and by drawing upon recent research that has been conducted on the Lexile scale for reading comprehension.     

Stress, Burnout and Workload in Teachers of Children with Special Educational Needs

Whilst stress in teaching has received much attention in recent years, for teachers of children with special educational needs (SEN) specific stress-related research is relatively rare. This study sought to address this issue by investigating stress, burnout and workload in teachers of children with special educational needs. A postal questionnaire was sent to 56 ordinary schools and eight schools for children with moderate learning difficulties (MLD), eight for children with severe learning difficulties (SLD) and eight for children with emotional and behavioural difficulties (EBD). The schools were situated in inner city, urban and rural areas in the south-east of England. A total of 221 teachers responded. Results indicated that, whilst generalised claims for burnout may not be justified, within all three special school settings there was evidence of a high level of emotional exhaustion as measured by the education version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI). In addition, all groups were subject to long hours of work, and work overload was high for ordinary school SEN teachers and teachers working in MLD and SLD settings. Reference to sources of intense stress indicated some differences according to setting but generally implicated workload and challenging behaviour. The conclusions are that further research into stress and burnout of SEN teachers is required if effective coping and preventative strategies are to be designed.     

The Training and Professional Development of School Leaders in Europe

The article reviews the activities that have been taking place in Europe in the field of senior staff training, particularly headteacher training, based on a study undertaken by the author in 1980 in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands and France. It goes on to consider some of the underlying problems and some major areas of study that require further examination, i.e. it is difficult to define the job to be undertaken by the trainer; to analyse the nature of the organisation and school system in which he works; to identify ‘leadership'; to provide relevant training and to then evaluate that training and its real impact on the school and on the quality, effectiveness and relevance of education offered to pupils and students.

Finally it describes some of the possibilities for fruitful cooperation and collaboration over the next few years through the efforts of a wide variety of international organisations.

Cet article fait un tour d'horizon des actions qui ont été entreprises en Europe dans le domaine de la formation des directeurs d'établissement et des maîtres chargés d'une responsabilité particulière dans l'enseignement. Il s'appuie sur une étude entreprise par l'auteur au Danemark, en France, en Norvège et dans les Pays‐Bas en 1980.

L'article étudie ensuite certains problèmes fondamentaux et quelques grands sujets d'étude qui demandent une analyse plus poussée: par exemple la difficulté à définir le travail que doit entreprendre le formateur, pour analyser la nature de l'organisation du système scolaire dans lequel il travaille, la difficulté à identifier les fonctions de ‘leadership’, à etablir une formation appropriée, puis à évaluer cette formation et son impact réel sur l'école et sur la qualité, enfin l'efficacité et l'appropriation de l'enseignement qui est offert aux élèves et étudiants.

Finalement, l'auteur expose quelques possibilités de collaboration fructueuse pour les prochaines années grâce aux efforts de différentes organisations internationales.     

School Leadership in West Africa: Findings from a Systematic Literature Review

The literature shows that leadership is the second most important factor influencing school and learner outcomes, including levels of literacy and numeracy, school leaving examination results, and progression to secondary and higher education. This article focuses on school leadership in West Africa, drawing on a systematic review of the academic and ‘grey’ literature, commissioned by UNESCO. The aim of the desk research was to ascertain the state of school leadership at all levels. The study shows that no West African countries provide specific preparation for school principals. It also shows that the predominant leadership style is managerial, with accountability to the hierarchy, within and beyond the school. The article concludes that specific development programmes should be provided for current and aspiring principals.     

Multicultural Training Resistances: Critical Incidents for Students of Color

Thirty‐two master’s students of color reported critical incidents of multicultural learning resistances. Qualitative findings suggest that students attributed resistances to limited program diversity and attention to cultural dynamics. Quantitative analyses indicate a racial difference in how students’ perceptions of peers influenced resistances. Recommendations include increasing educator cultural dialogue facilitation skills.     

‘The bar is slightly higher’: the perception of racism in teacher education

The education and training of teachers is an issue of national concern. In this paper we analyse the findings of an in‐depth investigation, undertaken by means of semi structured interviews, of a group of minority ethnic teacher trainees who withdrew from Initial Teacher Training courses in England, and a smaller group of those who completed these courses. We focus, in particular, on trainees' perception of the manifestation of racism during their training. Though none of the minority ethnic withdrawers perceive racism as the determining factor for their withdrawal, some mention instances of covert and even overt racism, while others note subtle forms of discriminatory obstacles to successful completion of the course, which they are reluctant to label as racism. The paper concludes by pointing to the complexity of categorizing phenomena as racism. It also draws attention, on the one hand, to the vulnerability of those who view themselves as being racially abused, and, on the other, to those who are disinclined to dwell on barriers to success as forms of racism and are more predisposed to regarding them as failures of the system.