A Meta-Analysis of Studies Comparing Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Men and Women

Abstract

Since [Vdot]O₂ max (ml/minute · kg body weight) is known to be the primary determinant of work capacity in weight-bearing exercise, the quantification of sex-specific factors influencing aerobic capacity is necessary if appropriate work capacity and endurance performance expectations and standards are to be developed for men and women. Yet, due to varying procedures and sample characteristics, large discrepancies exist among studies concerning the magnitude of the sex difference in [Vdot]O₂ max. The purpose of this article is to provide an integrative review of the research comparing [Vdot]O₂ max in men and women using the meta-analytic strategy proposed by Glass (1976). An overall estimate of the magnitude of the sex effect for each of three expressions of [Vdot]O₂ max is provided. When removing the variability in aerobic capacity due to body size and body fatness, the magnitude of difference in [Vdot]O₂ max between men and women is substantially reduced. When expressed relative to fat-free weight, the [Vdot]O₂ max values of the males are, on the average, 12 to 15% higher than those of the females. Sex-specific differences in relative hemoglobin content may be responsible for a part of this remaining difference. However, a substantial portion of the sex difference in [Vdot]O₂ max (ml/minute · kg fat-free weight) is probably attributable to gender-associated differences in level of physical activity/conditioning. The ability to clearly identify the sex-related components of aerobic capacity is an objective warranting further investigation.     

The Role of Content Knowledge in Conceptions of Teaching Effectiveness in Physical Education

Physical education teachers and the programs that prepare them find themselves in the early part of the 21st century in a public policy environment that differs significantly from that of the 20th century. This policy environment is grounded in an ideology that postulates that schools and teachers, rather than social forces, should be held responsible for academic outcomes, and in turn, economic success. For the first time, physical education teachers are being held accountable for student learning in the same way as their classroom peers. Improving the effectiveness of teachers is seen as the primary mechanism for improving student learning. In discussing how teaching effectiveness has evolved, I describe a relationship among the process–product paradigm, the ecological paradigm, and a neo-ecological paradigm called the instructional core. The latter paradigm extends our understanding of teaching effectiveness in new ways by describing the dynamic and interdependent relationship among teacher, student, and content in the gymnasium. It has significant implications for the professional development of teachers and the conduct of teaching effectiveness research. I conclude by discussing why content is so critical to conceptions of teaching effectiveness.     

Exercise Stress Testing Programs in the United States: A 1975 Status Study

Abstract

The purpose of the study was to document the status of exercise stress testing programs in the United States through an analysis of basic program components. A questionnaire was developed and sent to the list of exercise stress testing facilities compiled and published in 1975 by the National Jogging Association. Completed questionnaires were returned by 139 (60%) of the facilities surveyed. The data revealed that: (a) five categories of functional-clinical settings exist; (b) a large majority of programs are located in densely populated areas, were established within the past five years, and rely upon similar funding sources; (c) most of the clients are men over 35 years of age: (d) the YMCAs as a group vary considerably from the other functional settings with respect to certain aspects of program organization; and (e) there are no uniform standards of education and training for professional personnel, except for physicians. It was concluded that the rapid growth and diversity of exercise stress testing services have created a need for increased communication and cooperation among professionals concerning standards relative to procedures, protocols, and personnel.     

A Probabilistic Model for Evaluation of Volleyball Scoring Systems

Abstract

A probabilistic model for the game of volleyball is developed to evaluate alternative scoring systems. This Markov chain model is then recursively solved, to determine the distribution of the number of serves per game and the probability that a given team wins. These results are then used to evaluate the effects on the game of volleyball of a proposed change in the scoring system.     

Infant IQ Ratings Evaluated after an Interval of Seven Years

The four types of control groups commonly employed in cognitive manipulation studies were identified and arguments were presented concerning the problematic nature of each group as a baseline for identifying the “true” treatment effect. A general, two-step control procedure was advocated in which the researcher first identifies the most appropriate control group for a given context and then supplements this experimental control with statistical control. In reference to the latter controls, procedures were presented for developing a task-specific index as a covariable to be employed with a suitable measure of verbal aptitude in an analysis of covariance. The procedure was demonstrated on data from a quasi-experimental design in which it was shown that three different conclusions were possible depending upon the control procedures employed. It was argued that the converging operations obtained from the multivariate approach to the data analyses supported the results from the two-step control procedure. This procedure is not presented as a panacea but represents an attempt to “go beyond” the mechanical appocation of typical experimental controls for placebo effects.     

SSSW,Better Content-Writing

The North Carolina Governor's School offers a six-week residential summer program for four hundred academically talented rising juniors. This article measures the school's impact on these students in four fundamental areas: cognitive maturity, moral reasoning, personal learning style, and projections for the future. The results showed that Governor's School students advanced further on each of these critical tests than did equivalent nonattending students.     

SENIOR CISE : A PRINT EXERCISE INTERVENTION FOR OLDER ADULTS

This study was conducted to examine the efficacy of an inexpensive educational print exercise intervention based on the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) for older adults. Secondary objectives of this study were to examine the quality of the print intervention and possible ways to improve it through survey techniques. This was a posttest survey design. Information about the Senior cise booklet was distributed to senior housing communities and recreation centers throughout Rhode Island. One hundred thirty-three posters and 5,280 pamphlets with return postcards for ordering the Senior cise booklet were delivered over a period of nine months. Individuals who requested the booklet were contacted via telephone two weeks following mailing to assess the efficacy and quality of the booklet. Ninety-eight individuals requested the booklet and 61 participants completed the evaluation (mean age = 73 - 5.3 years; 77.1% female). The majority of participants found the booklet of good quality, stated that it created an interest, and said it inspired them to actually engage in physical activity. Survey participants cited only a few main good points and negative points about the booklet in general. The use of an inexpensive educational print intervention (Senior cise ) based on the TTM was well received and successful in engaging older adults to consider and participate in physical activity. The positive and negative points cited about the booklet will allow other researchers a better insight into what can make educational print interventions successful. Experimental research designs are recommended to evaluate more fully the efficacy of future exercise based print interventions.     

Resources In Review

Abstract

Essential Readings in Environmental Education , edited by Harold R. Hungerford, William J. Bluhm, Trudi L. Volk, and John M. Ramsey. Champaign, IL: Stipes. 1998. Paperback. ISBN 0-87563-756-6.

The Industrial Green Game: Implications for Environmental Design and Management , edited by Deanna Richards. Washington, DC: National Academy of Engineering, National Academy Press. 1997. Hardback. 224 pp. $39.95. ISBN 0-309-05294-7.

Stories in the Land: A Place-Based Environmental Education Anthology , with an introductory essay by John Elder. Great Barrington, MA: Orion Society. 1998. Paperback. 127 pp. $8.00. ISBN 0-913098-51-5.

Energies: An Illustrated Guide to the Biosphere and Civilization , by Vaclav Smil. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1998. Hardcover. 210 pp. $25.00. ISBN 0-262-19410-4.

Human Settlements and Planning for Ecological Sustainability: The Case of Mexico City , by Keith Pezzoli. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 1998. Hardcover. 464 pages. $40.00. ISBN 0-262-16173-7.

Tunnel Visions: Into the Sea of Uncertainty. Ben Lomond , CA: The Video Project, TUN-546-0. 1998. $99.95 institutions, $69.95 individuals; $5.95 shipping and handling. Available as one video of 57 minutes or two videos of 27 1/2 minutes each.

Biodiversity and Conservation , by Michael J. Jeffries. New York: Routledge. 1997. Paperback. 208 pp. $25.99. ISBN 0-415-14905-3.

The Natural Wealth of Nations: Harnessing the Market for the Environment , by David M. Roodman. New York: W.W. Norton. 1998. Paperback. 304 pp. $13.00. ISBN 0-393-31852-4.

Evaluation: A Systematic Approach , Sixth Edition, by Peter H. Rossi, Howard E. Freeman, and Mark W. Lipsey. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 1999. Hardback. 500 pp. $59.95. ISBN 0-7619-0893-5.     

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This study investigated the relationship between the communication source variables of attraction, credibility, and perceived similarity and the overall image of public figures. The arrangement of 15 public figures in a multidimensional space was compared to their arrangement on measures of attraction, credibility, and similarity. The arrangement of public figures in the multidimensional space was based on respondents' paired comparisons among all public figures. Results indicated that most of the theoretic concepts were used by respondents to construct their iamge of public figures. However, the concepts did not emerge as major determinants of that image. It was suggested that these concepts might be part of a latent structure which emerges whenever public figures are viewed as communicative sources.