Maze patrolling by rats with and without food reward

The effects of food reward on rats’ behavior in radial and Dashiell tunnel mazes were examined in two experiments. In the first, with animals at ad-lib body weights, food reward reduced speed of movement at the food locations, but did not affect the patterns of movement in either maze. Exploratory efficiency in the Dashiell maze was unaffected by food reward, and spontaneous patrolling of the radial maze by the nonrewarded animals was comparable to the behavior, reported by others, of rats running for food reward on elevated eight-arm mazes. In the second experiment, with subjects maintained at 80% of ad-lib body weights, there was some evidence for “winstay” learning: food-rewarded rats in the Dashiell maze were relatively more active near the food locations than were the nonrewarded animals, and more rewarded than nonrewarded rats revisited all food locations in the radial maze. Nonetheless, exploratory efficiency in the Dashiell maze was unaffected by food reward, as was patrolling efficiency in the radial maze, which was again comparable to that of rats on elevated mazes. The similarity in behavior of rewarded and nonrewarded animals in these mazes implies that the major determinant of their behavior, whether or not food reward is provided, is a spontaneous tendency to avoid places recently visited.     

Variability in Demand for Special Education Teachers: Indicators,Explanations, and Impacts

After decades of growth, the number of special education teachers (SETs) has begun to decline. In 2009, U.S. schools employed 13% fewer SETs than in 2006. The number of annual new hires of SETs also dropped dramatically in some states. The onset of these declines predated the economic downturn of 2008 and resulted in part from a steady decline since 2005 in the number of students with disabilities (SWD) served. We consider factors that may be contributing to declining demand for SETs, among them the number of SWD, service delivery, the economic downturn, and present supporting evidence. We also consider the potential impact of reduced demand on SET supply, teacher education, equitable distribution of teachers, and, most importantly, outcomes for SWD. We call for vigilance and monitoring of SET employment data to assure that all students receive the appropriate education to which they are entitled.     

Using Age,Cohort, and Period to Study Elderly Volunteerism

American volunteers, both informally and through organizations like the Corporation for National Service, make huge contributions to the well-being of millions of Americans and, via their unpaid or minimally-reimbursed work, to the American economy. Can America continue to count on maintaining or increasing volunteer contributions in the future? This question is especially important as the Baby Boomers replace the current generation of older Americans. This article provides faculty and students with information on elderly volunteering. It suggests and demonstrates using age-cohort-period analysis to understand different forces affecting volunteering by older Americans. A major benefit of age-cohort-period analysis is preventing faulty conclusions and, consequently, faulty policy decisions and waste of resources. Such analysis can also enhance current and future efforts to recruit and retain volunteers, particularly among the elderly.     

The BlueJ System and its Pedagogy

Many teachers experience serious problems when teaching object-orientation to beginners or professionals. Many of these problems could be overcome or reduced through the use of more appropriate tools. In this paper, we introduce BlueJ, an integrated development environment designed for teaching object-orientation, and discuss how the use of this tool can change the approach to teaching.