Because trucks aren’t bicycles: orthographic complexity as an important variable in reading research

Severe enduring reading- and writing-accuracy difficulties seem a phenomenon largely restricted to nations using complex orthographies, notably Anglophone nations, given English’s highly complex orthography (Geva and Siegel, Read Writ 12:1–30, 2000; Landerl et al., Cognition 63:315–334, 1997; Share, Psychol Bull 134(4):584–615, 2008; Torgesen and Davis, J Exp Child Psychol 63:1–21, 1996; Vellutino, J Learn Disabil 33(3):223, 2000). They seem rare in transparent orthography nations such as Finland, which use highly regular spelling and few spelling rules beyond letter sounds, and most children read and write with impressive accuracy by the end of Year 1 (Holopainen et al., J Learn Disabil 34(5):401–413, 2001; Seymour et al., Br J Psychol 94:143–174, 2003; Spencer and Hanley, Br J Psychol 94(1):1–29, 2003; J Res Read 27(1):1–14, 2004). Orthographic complexity has strong and diverse impacts on reading, writing and academic development (Aro, Learning to read: The effect of orthography, 2004; Galletly and Knight, Aust J Learn Disabil 9(4):4–11, 2004; Aust Educ Res 38(3):329–354, 2011). Despite these strong effects, orthographic complexity is rarely included as a variable in reading research studies considering evidence from both Anglophone (complex orthography) and transparent-orthography readers, or included in discussion of factors influencing results. This paper discusses the differences in reading-accuracy development and difficulties evidenced in studies of Anglophone (complex-orthography) and transparent-orthography readers. It then explores instances of orthographic complexity not being considered in studies where it may have impacted results. This disregarding of orthographic complexity as a variable in research studies appears an oversight, one likely to be contributing to continuing confusion on many aspects of reading and writing development in both healthy- and low-progress readers. Needs for research in these areas are discussed.     

Knowledge of Normal and Pathological Memory Aging in College Students,Social Workers,and Health Care Professionals

The Knowledge of Memory Aging Questionnaire (KMAQ) measures laypersons' knowledge of normal memory changes and pathological memory deficits in adulthood. In Experiment 1, undergraduate and graduate social work students and social work practitioners completed the KMAQ. Social workers and graduate students were more accurate on the pathological than normal memory aging items, but undergraduate students' knowledge did not differ by question type. Experiment 2 was a conceptual replication where the same pattern of outcomes was obtained using a more heterogeneous sample to increase the ecological validity of the findings. Results confirmed that nonmedical and medical staff at an assisted living facility and health care professionals were more accurate on the pathological than normal memory aging items. Community college and university students' accuracy was similar across question type. Implications for research and the design of education programs to increase awareness of normal and pathological memory deficits in late life are considered.     

A Rubric for Self-Assessment of Essential Technology Conditions in Schools

This article describes the development of a Web-based instrument that is part of a strategic planning initiative in technology in K–12 schools in Nebraska. The instrument provides rubrics for self-assessment of essential conditions necessary for integrating and adopting of technology. Essential conditions were defined by an extended panel of educators from across the state. The rubric examines the areas of (a) technology administration and support, (b) technology capacity, (c) educator competencies and professional development, (d) learners and learning, and (e) accountability. Each area is assessed by four to seven items that are rated using explicitly described criteria. The Web-based system allows schools to complete this rubric as part of the needs assessment process and make comparisons on their profile from year to year and relative to a statewide composite profile. Based on data from 2005 and 2006, reliability scores (Cronbach's alpha) for subscales ranged from .68 to .82. Reliability for the entire scale was .92. Examination of data over the first two years of implementation showed significant year-to-year positive mean differences in subscale scores, indicating that the instrument was sensitive to changing conditions. Effect sizes were small but acceptable.     

Relationships between writing motivation, writing activity, and writing performance: effects of grade, sex, and ability

A convenience sample of 618 children and adolescents in grades 4 through 10, excluding grade 8, were asked to complete a writing motivation and activity scale and to provide a timed narrative writing sample to permit an examination of the relationships between writing motivation, writing activity, writing performance, and the student characteristics of grade, sex, and teacher judgment of writing ability. Female students and older students wrote qualitatively better fictional stories, as did students with higher levels of writing ability based on teacher judgment. With respect to writing activity, more frequent writing in and out of school was reported by girls, better writers, and younger students. In a path analysis, grade and sex directly influenced writing activity, while sex, teacher judgment of writing ability, and writing activity directly influenced some aspects of writing motivation. Overall, teacher judgment of writing ability, grade level, and motivational beliefs each exerted a significant direct positive influence on narrative quality, whereas performance goals exerted a significant direct negative impact on quality.     

Response of school personnel to student threat assessment training

This article analyzes the distribution of mathematics achievement among class, school, municipality, and state in Argentina. Data from the Year 2000, 6th-grade Primary School Census from the Minister of Education are analyzed using multilevel methodology. The results indicate that all levels of the education system are relevant and must be considered. If all levels are included, the school “raw” effect is much less (18%) than if they are not (31%). Prior academic performance and socioeconomic level of the individual pupil, plus socioeconomic composition variables, accounted for most of the performance distribution among school, municipality, and state levels. These kinds of variables do not explain significant inter-class differences inside the school. As a consequence, the class became the superior level with the larger proportion of the total unexplained variance (15%), while the school variation represents just 8,6% of that variation. Finally, unexplained inter-school and inter-class variation is still significant making it necessary to further investigate relevant schooling and classroom factors.     

Early understandings of simple food chains: A learning progression for the preschool years

ABSTRACT

Aspects of preschoolers’ ecological understandings were explored in a cross-age, quantitative study that utilised a sample of seventy-five 3- to 5-year-old children. Specifically, their concepts of feeding relationships were determined by presenting physical models of three-step food chains during structured interviews. A majority of children, particularly 5-year olds, were capable of grasping concepts inherent in food chain topics that are scheduled to appear later in their schooling. In part, age differences in children’s reasoning can be accounted for by attentional theory based on evolutionary predator avoidance adaptations, which tended to become significant at 5 years. Data suggest that these aspects of preschool ecological education could be increased in sophistication, thus accelerating children’s understandings about the environment beyond what is currently the case.     

IDENTIFYING STUDENTS WITH EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCE: SCHOOL PSYCHOLOGISTS’ PRACTICES AND PERCEPTIONS

From its inception as a disability category in the Education for All Handicapped Children Act, serving students under the special education category Emotional Disturbance (ED) has been a challenging task for school psychologists. In particular, the vague and ambiguous federal definition has created an environment in which inconsistent assessment practices and decision making are almost inevitable. In this study, we examined school psychologists’ (N = 214) assessment practices when determining initial eligibility for ED, as well as their perceptions regarding the language contained within the federal ED definition. Findings indicated that although school psychologists recognize the need for a multimethod, multisource assessment model when ED is a classification consideration, in many instances, their actual assessments are missing commonly recommended sources of data for making eligibility decisions, including classroom observations; parent, teacher, and student interviews; and behavior rating scales. The results from the study provide a useful overview of school psychologists’ assessment practices and are couched within the questions and confusion that have surrounded the federal ED definition since its codification into law.