An empirical test of a taxonomy of responses to anomalous data in science

The purpose of this study was to test a taxonomy of seven proposed responses to anomalous data. Our results generally supported the taxonomy but indicated that one additional type of response should be added to the taxonomy. We conclude that there are eight possible responses to anomalous data: (a) ignoring the data, (b) rejecting the data, (c) professing uncertainty about the validity of the data, (d) excluding the data from the domain of the current theory, (e) holding the data in abeyance, (f) reinterpreting the data, (g) accepting the data and making peripheral changes to the current theory, and (h) accepting the data and changing theories. We suggest that this taxonomy could help science teachers in two ways. First, science teachers could use the taxonomy to try to anticipate how students might react to anomalous data so as to make theory change more likely. Second, science teachers could use the taxonomy as a framework to guide classroom discussion about the nature of scientific rationality. In addition, the taxonomy suggests directions for future research. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 35: 623–654, 1998.     

Conducting tests of hypotheses: The need for an adequate sample size

This article addresses the importance of obtaining a sample of an adequate size for the purpose of testing hypotheses. The logic underlying the requirement for a minimum sample size for hypothesis testing is discussed, as well as the criteria for determining it. Implications for researchers working with convenient samples of a fixed size are also considered, and suggestions are given about the steps that should be taken when they are not able to obtain a large enough sample. Finally, the implications of not having an adequate sample size for hypothesis testing are discussed to highlight the importance of determining sample size prior to conducting one’s study.     

‘I like being a lab Rat’: student experiences of research participation

Undergraduate students are often expected to be participants in academic research. However, decisions relating to student participation in research are typically based on speculation or educator assumptions rather than a solid research base. We conducted three studies to investigate student experiences of research participation. These included online surveys (Study 1), semi-structured interviews (Study 2), and analysis of reflective essays (Study 3). A range of pedagogic and ethical issues were considered including motivation to participate, distress, and the educational value of participation. Findings suggest that the experience provides students with important opportunities to learn about research methodology and ethical issues which inform their own research practice. Further, students cite additional non-academic benefits of research participation such as self-discovery and networking opportunities. Negative experiences typically consisted of nervousness prior to the first laboratory study or boredom, though for some students (e.g. those uncomfortable in social situations) engagement in research may lead to anxiety. We conclude that participation in research has pedagogic value to students, and educators should promote those elements of the research experience (e.g. critiquing studies, networking with researchers) that are most beneficial. However, researchers and educators should also actively work to reduce apprehension and minimise potential distress.     

Sample and Population Diagram - A Teaching Tool

This article describes a simple, yet effective way to introduce and also review the concepts of ‘sample’ and ‘population’ using a Sample and Population Diagram.     

Type of Positive Interdependence and Affiliation Motive in an Asynchronous, Collaborative Learning Environment

In this study, we investigated the effect of type of positive interdependence (roles, rewards, roles-plus-rewards, or no structure) and affiliation motives (high vs. low) in an asynchronous, collaborative learning environment. College reentry students worked together in small, fully online discussion groups that lasted for seven days. Results indicated that participants in groups given roles plus rewards interacted with their teammates significantly more than those given rewards only or no-structured-interdependence conditions. A significant positive correlation suggested that participants with higher numbers of interactions attained higher posttest scores. However, no significant differences were found in achievement by type of interdependence or by affiliation motive. Results also revealed that type of interdependence and affiliation motive had a significant impact on student attitudes. Implications for integrating small group work in online higher education settings are discussed.     

Ethnicity: the experience of socio‐economic disadvantage and educational attainment

The analysis concerns the way in which socio‐economic disadvantage affects the educational performance of children from different ethnic groups. Nationally representative data was provided by the 10 year follow‐up survey of the Child Health and Education Study. The effects of nine indicators of socio‐economic disadvantage on the intelligence, and reading test scores of United Kingdom, West Indian and Asian children were investigated. Differences were found between these groups of children in terms of the relationships between the disadvantage indicators and the test scores. The most striking result was the lack of sensitivity of the West Indian children's test scores to socio‐economic conditions. Attention was focused on this phenomenon, the analysis being repeated using United Kingdom and Asian children who had been matched with the West Indian children on the basis of intelligence. Again it was found that, unlike Asian and United Kingdom children, the test scores of West Indian children did not show any statistically significant relationships between the nine criteria of socio‐economic disadvantage. Subsequent analyses indicated a relationship between mother's social class and also mother's age and reading attainment in West Indian children. Various methods of explaining these results are discussed. It is suggested that further research should be pursued which investigates first whether different measures of socio‐economic disadvantage are relevant to West Indians, and secondly whether other non‐socioeconomic dimensions of disadvantage may help to explain the unique position of West Indian children.     

Does it pay to attend an elite private college? Evidence on the effects of undergraduate college quality on graduate school attendance

Much attention has recently focused on the rapidly rising costs of a college education, and whether the benefits of attending an elite private college have kept pace with the increasing costs. In this paper we analyze whether undergraduate college quality affects the likelihood that an individual attends graduate school. Using data on three cohorts of students from the National Longitudinal Study of the High School Class of 1972 and High School and Beyond, we find that on balance attendance at an elite private college significantly increases the probability of attending graduate school, and more specifically, graduate school at a major research institution.     

Principals and student outcomes: Evidence from U.S. high schools

This paper presents an empirical analysis of the effects of principals on public high school students' academic achievement, using High School and Beyond. Despite policy relevance, previous qualitative and quantitative research provides little systematic evidence on principal effects, at least for high schools. Principal characteristics and variables designed to capture less tangible aspects of the principal's role are included in educational production functions. The results suggest principals do have a measurable impact on student achievement, through the selection of teachers and setting of academically oriented school goals.