Teaching Thinking: new signs for theories of cognition

In this overview of research and practice associated with teaching thinking, three conceptions of thinking are identified. Thinking as information‐processing, which has its roots in the dominant paradigm in cognitive psychology; thinking as making judgements, which is associated with critical thinking; and thinking as sense‐making, which is embedded in constructivist epistemology. Core assumptions and characteristics of each viewpoint, as they are realised in cognitive instruction, are examined. The main features of an emergent model of instruction, cognitive apprenticeship, are identified. Finally, using the information‐processing framework as a baseline, socially shared cognition and situated cognition are detected as new signs for cognitive theory.     

Early Mathematics in the Home and Out-of-Home Contexts

The investigation to be reported here is part of a wider, multi-method and longitudinal study that has tracked early mathematics in the home of nine young children from between one and two years of age through to school age. The paper focuses on the mathematical development of two of the children, providing an in-depth analysis of observation and discourse in the home and considering the possible impact of this on later attitudes to learning. Clark (2001) has argued that it is possible to pin-point contexts in homes and pre-school settings from research evidence that are most likely to stimulate learning in young children and to lay an effective foundation for literacy and numeracy. This paper concludes that early pedagogical strategies may vary in the manner in which they pave the way not only for the later development, but also foster expectations for and attitudes towards future learning. L'investigation ici rapporte´e fait partie d'une e´tude de type multi-me´thode et longitudinal plus comple ¤ te, qui traque l'usage des mathe´matiques au premier age dans la maison par neuf jeunes enfants, a ¤ partir de l'age d'entre un et deux ans au passage a ¤ la scolarite´ formelle. Cet essai se concentre sur le de´veloppement mathe´matique de deux des enfants, fournissant une analyse approfondie de la observation et du discours dans la maison et conside ¤ re l'impact possible de ceci sur l'accomplissement et les attitudes a ¤ l'apprentissage poste´rieurs. Clark (2001) a soutenu que c'est possible de pre´ciser contextes spe´cifiques dans le cadre du foyer et dans les cadres pre´scolaires en e´manant de l'e´vidence de la recherche qui vont plus probablement stimuler l'apprentissage dans les jeunes enfants et placer une fondation efficace pour l'alphabe´tisation et l'aptitude au calcul. Cet essai conclut qu'une strate´gie parentale efficace est caracte´rise´e par sa direction de l'attention de l'enfant aux relations dans l'espace, le temps, la quantite´ et l'e´tendue, qui peuvent etre perc¸ues au cours de la manipulation d'objets dans les actions qui sont en cours de realisation et qui ont e´te´ introduites par l'enfant meme. La conscience de ces relations est e´tablie par la pe´riode d'acquisition de langue pendant que l'enfant reconna L t, arrange et manipule des relations qui peuvent etre perc¸ues dans les objets de jeu. L' appui par l'adulte de la coordination de l'enfant dans ces relations dans le contexte d'activite´s verbales et pratiques semble paver la voie non seulement pour le de´veloppement poste´rieur de principes cognitifs mais aussi d'espe´rances positives pour et des attitudes vers l'apprentissage futur. La investigacio´n que se relata aqu L ´´ forma parte de un estudio multime´todo y longitudinal ma´s amplio, que rastrea el uso de las matema´ticas en la primera edad en la casa de nueve nin ¨ os, de la edad de entre uno y dos an ¨ os al pasaje a la educacio´n formal. Este ensayo hace enfoque en el desarrollo matema´tico de dos de los nin ¨ os, proporcionando un ana´lisis a fondo de observacio´n y discurso en el hogar y considerando el impacto posible de e´ste sobre el logro posterior y las actitudes para el estudio. Clark (2001) ha argumentado que es posible sen ¨ alar los contextos en el hogar y en los ambientes preescolares (basandose en evidencia emergente de investigaciones previas) que ma´s probablemente estimulan el estudio en los nin ¨ os y que proporcionan una base eficaz para el alfabetismo y la aptitud al ca´lculo. Este ensayo concluye que una estrategia eficaz de parte de los padres es caracterizada por su dirigimiento de la atencio´n del nin ¨ o hacia las relaciones de espacio, de tiempo, de cantidad y grado, que puede ser percibido en el curso de la manipulacio´n de objetos en acciones continuas iniciadas por nin ¨ o. El conocimiento de estas relaciones se establece en el per L ´´odo de la adquisicio´n del lenguaje a medida que el nin ¨ o reconoce, pone en orden y manipula las relaciones que se pueden percibir en los objetos de juego. El apoyo de la coordinacio´n del nin ¨ o en estas relaciones por el adulto en el contexto de actividades verbales y pra´cticas parece preparar el terreno no so´lo para el desarrollo posterior de principios cognoscitivos pero tambie´n para las esperanzas positivas y para las actitudes hacia el aprendizaje futuro.     

Developing Performance Indicators for Assessing Classroom Teaching Practices and Student Learning

Several states are requiring institutions to document changes in student outcomes. Regional and specialized accrediting agencies are also changing their review criteria from measuring inputs to assessing indicators of student learning. This article describes the results of an evaluation project that sought to develop performance indicators of learning gains for undergraduate engineering students. Specifically, the study investigated the relationship between classroom practices and students' gains in professional competencies. More than 1,250 students from 7 universities participated. Findings show that the instructional practices of Instructor Interaction and Feedback, Collaborative Learning, and Clarity and Organization are significantly and positively associated with gains in students' self-reported gains in problem-solving skills, group skills, and understanding of engineering as an occupation. The indicators meet several conditions recommended by the assessment literature. They are (1) meaningful to the user, (2) reliable and valid, and (3) index observable behaviors rather than subjective impressions.     

Classroom design and impression formation: A new area for research

Recently, educators and psychologists have begun to discuss the messages conveyed by different classroom designs. Although the arguments presented are persuasive, the basic contention—that classroom design influences impression formation—has not been empirically tested. The purpose of this article is to bring to the attention of educational psychologists the possibilities for research in this area. The paper summarizes the findings of some initial investigations and suggests directions for future study.     

Changes in the perceived classroom goal structure and pattern of adaptive learning during early adolescence

Despite a recent increase in research on the associations between classroom goal structures, motivation, affect, and achievement, little is known about the effects of changes in the perceived classroom goal structure as students move from one grade level to another. Comparisons of students who perceived an increase, decrease, or no change in the mastery and performance goal structures of their classrooms during the transition to middle school and across two grades within middle school revealed that changes in the mastery goal structure were more strongly related to changes in cognition, affect, and performance than were changes in the performance goal structure. The most negative pattern of change was associated with a perceived decrease in the mastery goal structure.     

Using curriculum-based measurement to inform reading instruction

The focus of this article is recent CBM work that incorporates diagnostic reading assessment. The goal is to help general and special educators tailor more effective reading instruction for developing readers. The development process for this CBM diagnostic reading assessment is described; the resulting assessment is presented; and preliminary data on its technical features and utility are provided. This research was supported in part by Grant #H324C000022 from the US Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, and Core Grant #HD15052 from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development to Vanderbilt University. Statements do not reflect the position or policy.     

Sexual abuse in the developmentally disabled: Dilemmas of diagnosis

Evaluation of developmentally disabled persons for physical signs of sexual abuse presents many challenges to the practitioner. This group is especially vulnerable to all types of abuse. A group of 35 mentally retarded females from a residential treatment facility was examined by the child abuse medical team at Harbor/UCLA Medical Center after one inpatient was found to be pregnant. Patients ranged in age from 13 to 55 years (median, 26 years; mean, 31.3 +/- 13.6 years). All of the women had some degree of disability, with 24 (69%) being categorized as profoundly retarded. No patient was able to provide a history. There were 13 (37%) patients who had genital findings we believe are consistent with prior vaginal penetration. Dilemmas which arose during evaluation included the significance of healed genital lesions in this population and the implications of the findings for the residential facility. While developmentally disabled persons need an advocate in the medical and legal systems, these patients can overwhelm the practitioner. Whenever possible, a team approach is recommended to decrease the work load and frustration and provide collegial support and affirmation of findings.