Accumbens D2: Raters of the Loss Outcome

Zalocusky et al. (Nature 531:642–646, 2016) recently showed that activity in D2R+ cells in the nucleus accumbens is associated with loss sensitivity to prior outcomes and reduced subsequent risky choice, and that optogenetic stimulation of these cells decreased risky choices in risk-prone rats. While their findings are important for understanding trait-level risk-taking, future research should aim to examine the neuronal mechanisms of a broader range of facets of gain and loss processing with respect to different potential reference points.     

The Structure and Substance of Teachers’ Opportunities to Learn about Teacher Evaluation Reform: Promise or Pitfall for Equity?

Despite growing momentum to overhaul teacher evaluation policies and practices, scant research examines how educators at the street level of such reform—principals and teachers—make sense of them, and almost no research examines the implications of current evaluation reforms for equity. This article provides findings based on a study of 14 districts implementing a new teacher evaluation policy in Connecticut. It focuses on how principals shaped teachers’ opportunities to learn about the new policy. We find that the majority of teachers’ opportunities to learn were formal and in whole group or one-on-one formats. We find important differences in the quantity and quality of learning opportunities at the district level, with districts serving greater shares of low-income students, students of color, and English language learners generally offering teachers fewer and lower quality opportunities to learn about the new reform than their counterparts. As such, this article builds on prior research illustrating the potential of new evaluation systems to exacerbate inequities and raises important cautions regarding the extent to which the unprecedented teacher evaluation reforms (currently underway) may exacerbate inequities among school districts.     

Discriminating between reward-produced memories: Effects of differences in reward magnitude

The greater the dissimilarity between exteroceptive stimuli, the easier it is to discriminate between them. To determine whether a similar relationship holds for memories produced by reward events, rats in three runway investigations received trials in pairs, the number of food pellets (0.045 g) occurring on Trial 1 indicating whether reward or nonreward would occur on Trial 2. In each investigation, discriminative responding on Trial 2 was better the larger the difference in reward magnitude on Trial 1. This finding was obtained under a wide variety of conditions: for example, when the larger of two reward magnitudes on Trial 1 signaled nonreward on Trial 2 (Experiment 1, 10 vs. 2 pellets); when the smaller of two reward magnitudes on Trial 1 signaled nonreward on Trial 2 (Experiment 2, 10 vs. 2 pellets); and when the same magnitude of reward on Trial 1 signaled nonreward on Trial 2 (Experiment 3, either 5 pellets or 0 pellets). The findings obtained here indicate that the greater the dissimilarity between reward magnitudes, the greater the dissimilarity between the memories they produced and, thus, the easier it is to discriminate between them. It is suggested that the present results may provide a basis for understanding findings obtained in other instrumental learning investigations in which reward magnitude is varied.     

Gardnerella vaginalis infection and sexual contact in female children

Gardnerella vaginalis (GV) infection has been reported as being acquired via sexual contact in adults and as an indicator of sexual contact in female children (DeJong, 1985). The purpose of this study was to determine if GV infection was more commonly found in 191 female children who gave a history of sexual contact and/or were infected with Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) or Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) (Group 1), compared with 144 female children evaluated for possible sexual abuse and found to have no such history or infection with GC or CT (Group 2), or 31 female children (friends of the authors) without such a history or GC or CT infection (Group 3). Vaginal GV was found in 5.3% of Group 1, 4.9% of Group 2 and 6.4% of Group 3 (p > .05). Also, vaginal GV infection was not related to the type of sexual contact or race, but did increase with age in white female children. Because vaginal GV infection is not more commonly found in children with a history of sexual contact than those without such a history, the finding of GV in a vaginal culture in an individual case would not be a reliable marker of sexual contact. Routine culturing for GV is not recommended as part of a sexual abuse workup.     

Family risk factors and prevalence of dissociative symptoms among homeless and runaway youth

OBJECTIVE: To examine family risk factors associated with dissociative symptoms among homeless and runaway youth. METHOD: Three hundred and twenty-eight homeless and runaway youth were interviewed using a systematic sampling strategy in metropolitan Seattle. Homeless young people were interviewed on the streets and in shelters by outreach workers in youth service agencies. RESULTS: The current study revealed widespread prevalence of dissociative symptoms among these young people. Multivariate analyses revealed that sexual abuse, physical abuse, and family mental health problems were all positively associated with dissociative symptoms. No gender differences were found for any of the models. CONCLUSIONS: Dissociative behavior is widespread among these youth and may pose a serious mental health concern. Some young people experience numerous stressors, and with few resources and little support available, many may invoke maladaptive strategies such as dissociative behavior to handle such situations, which may in turn be detrimental to their mental health. Unless youth are provided with programs and intervention, the cycle of abuse that they have experienced at home is likely to continue on the street.     

Risk factors for the perpetration of child sexual abuse: a review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES: Since the late 1980s, there has been a strong theoretical focus on psychological and social influences of perpetration of child sexual abuse. This paper presents the results of a review and meta-analysis of studies examining risk factors for perpetration of child sexual abuse published since 1990. METHOD: Eighty-nine studies published between 1990 and April of 2003 were reviewed. Risk factors were classified into one of the following six broad categories: family factors, externalizing behaviors, internalizing behaviors, social deficits, sexual problems, and attitudes/beliefs. Sex offenders against children (SOC) were compared to three comparison groups identified within the 89 studies: sex offenders who perpetrated against adults (SOA), non-sex offenders, and non-offenders with no history of criminal or sexual behavior problems. RESULTS: Results for the six major categories showed that SOC were not different from SOA (all d between -.02 and .14) other than showing lower externalizing behaviors (d=-.25). Sex offenders against children were somewhat different from non-sex offenders, especially with regard to sexual problems and attitudes (d=.83 and .51). Sex offenders against children showed substantial differences from non-offenders with medium sized effects in all six major categories (d's range from .39 to .58). CONCLUSION: Child sex offenders are different from non-sex offenders and non-offenders but not from sex offenders against adults. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: This study suggests that the presence of general risk factors may lead to a variety of negative behavioral outcomes, including the perpetration of child sexual offending. Family factors were strongly related to the perpetration of child sex offending (vs. non-sexual offending or non-offending) and may be valuable intervention points for interrupting the development of child sex offending, as well as other negative behaviors. Other potential points for intervention may focus on the development of appropriate social and emotional skills that contribute to sexual offending.     

The evaluation and research of multi-project programs program component analysis

This paper will consider ways to study educational reform efforts in order to allow policy-making to be developed on a relatively sound basis. At present, educational policy-making often derives from a pastiche of available anecdotes, research-based “good” ideas, and previous administrative guidelines. Educational evaluation efforts should not be used merely to identify and label programs as either “successes” or “failures” at a global level, but rather to permit the analyses of elements or components of programs which seem to be making positive contributions to a common sense perception of program success. A comprehensive, developmental sequence for such evaluation will be described.     

Teachers' perceptions of the effects of a scientific literary course on subsequent learning in biology

Five teachers were interviewed as to their perceptions of the effect of an intervention to teach scientific literacy on learning in subsequent biology courses. The sample consisted of 450 students who had a literacy course in ninth grade and had completed tenth-grade biology. At the end of the academic year the biology teachers were interviewed and asked to compare the biology students who had the literacy course to students they had taught in earlier years. The biology teachers concluded that the literacy course did have an effect on students' subsequent ability to learn biology. The strength of the effect varied according to level of biology. Students had a better understanding of the nature of science and better laboratory and process skills. They were also better at analyzing data. The advanced and intermediate biology students were more creative, more likely to take risks, and engage in hypothetical thinking than other groups of students that the teachers had taught. Although the purpose of the literacy course was to teach literacy skills the advanced students retained a substantial amount of content material that was applicable to biology.     

The Relationship between Students’ Characteristics and Their Impressions of Online Courses

This study explored relationship between students’ conscientiousness and motivation, their impressions of the online environment, and their learning. Also examined were relationships between their impressions of the online environment and their sense of community and their interactions with others. Questionnaires were completed by 84 students at a private college. Students who were more conscientious and intrinsically motivated had more favorable impressions of online courses. They were engaged, and perceived value in the course, and were less anxious or frustrated when taking online courses. Those students who perceived a sense of community, or social presence, also had more favorable impressions. These relationships and their implications are discussed.