A Reply to Chromiak and Stone

Abstract

Influence from parents and friends on adolescents' self-reported level of leisure-time physical activity was examined through measures of (a) perceived leisure-time physical activity of parents and best friend, (b) perceived direct support for physical activity from parents and friends, (c) direct help from parents in exercising vigorously, and (d) perceived value of physical activity of parents and friends. The present analysis included 904 students in western Norway (M age 13.3 years, SD 0.3) who took part in a health behavior survey, which included questions regarding physical activity. Students completed a confidential questionnaire at school All four measures of influence were positively related to students' activity levels. None of the examined measures was clearly stronger than the other. Parental and peer physical activity level and parental and peer support for physical activity seem to influence the reported physical activity level of the respondents. The findings indicate that, by serving as models and supporters, significant others have an important impact in promoting physical activity in young adolescents.     

Cardiac Structure and Function in Women Basketball Athletes: Seasonal Variation and Comparisons with Nonathletic Controls

Abstract

To characterize hypertrophy and quantify seasonal changes in cardiac structure and function of women collegiate basketball (BB) athletes (n = 15), echocardiography (echo) measurements were made in the fall (FALL₁), winter (WIN), and spring (SPR), then again during the subsequent fall (FALL₂; n = 10). Comparisons were made to age-matched nonathletes (NA) measured during FALL₁ (n = 22) and SPR (n = 5). Left ventricular (LV) internal dimension–diastole (LVIDd), LV end-diastolic volume (LVEDV), stroke volume (SV), LV mass (LVM), septal thickness (IVS), LV posterior wall thickness (LVPW), right ventricular (RV) internal dimension-diastole (RVIDd), and aortic root diameter (AOD) were significantly larger (12–70%) in the athletes; RVIDd-, LVEDV-, SV-, and LVM-index were also significantly greater (8–46%). From FALL₁ to SPR measurement periods, LVWd, RVWd, LVEDV, SV, IVS, and LVM-index increased significantly (7–18%) in the athletes. Over the same period of time, LVIDd, LAD, AOD, LVEDV, and SV measured in the five NA subjects increased significantly. In the athletes, LVIDs, RVIDd, IVS, LVPW, and LVM decreased significantly (5–30%) from the SPR to FALL₂ measurement period. These data characterize the general nature of the cardiac hypertrophy noted in women BB athletes compared to NA controls and show that distinct changes in heart structure corresponding to different periods of the competitive season can occur in these athletes.     

Physical Activity Practices in Elementary Schools and Associations With Physical Education Staffing and Training

Purpose: Authorities recommend that schools provide a variety of opportunities for students to obtain physical activity (PA) before, during, and after school. This study assessed the prevalence of several school PA practices—including measures of quantity and quality of physical education (PE)—in elementary schools and examined the associations of PA practices with school resources (PE staffing, training, and facilities). Method: Surveys were obtained from respondents in nationally representative samples of elementary schools from 2009–2010 to 2011–2012 (1,831 schools). Results: Few schools (20.8%) provided students with PE class every day, but most (76.3%) had an appropriate PE student-to-teacher ratio ( ≤ 25:1). Many schools (74.0%) offered 20 min of recess daily, but fewer than half offered organized opportunities for PA before or after school (e.g., sports). After controlling for demographics and school size, having a full-time PE teacher and requiring PE teachers to obtain PE-related continuing education (CE) were associated with PE practices such as offering ≥ 150 min of PE per week (for 3rd-grade students) and testing PE knowledge, skills, and fitness. Required CE was also associated with a higher likelihood of offering PA during the school day (i.e., activity breaks and PA outside of PE class) and before or after the school day (i.e., afterschool PA programs). Conclusion: Few schools offer a broad array of PA programming. However, PE staffing and CE are positively associated with many PA practices including those outside of PE, possibly indicating that PE staff serve a crucial role in promoting a whole-school PA-supportive environment.     

Challenges to Cognitive Bases for an Especial Motor Skill at the Regulation Baseball Pitching Distance

We tested expert baseball pitchers for evidence of especial skills at the regulation pitching distance. Seven college pitchers threw indoors to a target placed at 60.5 feet (18.44 m) and four closer and four further distances away. Accuracy at the regulation distance was significantly better than predicted by regression on the nonregulation distances (p < .02), indicating an especial skill effect emerged despite the absence of normal contextual cues. Self-efficacy data failed to support confidence as a mediating factor in especial skill effect. We concluded that cognitive theories fail to fully account for the patterns of observed data, and therefore theoretical explanations of the especial skills must address noncognitive aspects of motor learning and control.     

The FTSE-British Olympic Association Initiative: A resource dependence perspective

The Financial Times Stock Exchange (FTSE)-British Olympic Association (BOA) Initiative, a partnership scheme initiated in 2007 between a number of FTSE 100 companies and Olympic National Governing Bodies (NGBs) in the UK, seeks to improve the effectiveness of the Olympic NGBs delivery and subsequent performance through the provision of support in-kind from the corporate partner. The paper uses resource dependency theory to analyse the partnerships within the Initiative, focusing primarily on the operation and benefits of those partnerships from the perspective of the Olympic NGBs. Despite being the less powerful party in the partnership, the NGBs are able to use the partnerships to acquire critical resources. While the benefits received by the companies are softer and more social in nature, nevertheless they demonstrate mutual dependency between the partners. This knowledge provides an incentive for NGBs to engage in co-optation and constraint activities as a way to strengthen the dependency relationships and protect their position.     

Social validation: a motivational theory of doping in an online bodybuilding community

Abstract

Doping research has predominantly been framed through an ethical lens, implicitly restricted to the realms of elite sport. Despite increasing anecdotal evidence of growing prevalence rates amongst recreational athletes, such as bodybuilders, these populations have largely been neglected within psychological research. This study aims to develop a theoretical framework relevant to these athletes. Data were collected over a five-month period from an online community forum dedicated to recreational bodybuilders. Purposive sampling was used to gather 118 webpages of doping-related discussion, which were qualitatively analysed using grounded theory applying Strauss’s coding paradigm. Inductive categories were integrated into a motivational framework that related recreational doping to social validation. Categories included the online community’s rite of passage, normative-inferences that facilitated doping, and deterrence factors related to fear of perceived health risks. Findings demonstrate that, for recreational bodybuilders, psychosocial processes are significantly related to doping motives, and that health factors are primary doping deterrents.     

The Experiential Consultation Training Model

The Experiential Consultation Training Model (ECTM) provides students an opportunity to develop and practice consultation skills through real‐life experiences in actual professional settings. The authors present the structure, process, and evaluation methods of the ECTM and discuss practical applications for counselor education.     

Lack of Relationship Between Functional and Perceived Quality of Life Outcomes Following Pulmonary Rehabilitation

Individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have been shown to benefit from participation in pulmonary rehabilitation (PR) programs that include exercise training and education. Purpose: To examine the relationship between improvements in 6 minute walk distance and perceived quality of life in individuals with COPD following completion of a PR program. Methods: The records of 139 individuals completing a PR program (3 times a week for 8 weeks) were retrospectively examined. Prior to entry and upon completion of the program each individual completed a 6 minute walk test (6MWT), the SF-36 Health survey, and the UCSD Shortness of Breath Questionnaire (SOB). SF-36 results were analyzed according to 8 subscales [Physical Functioning (PF), Role Physical (RF), Bodily Pain (BP), General Health (GH), Vitality (V), Social Functioning (SF), Role Emotional (RE), and Mental Health (MH)]. Results: PR resulted in significant improvements in 6MWTdistance (Pre = 845 ± 37 ft, Post = 1127 ± 32 ft, p < 0.001), PF (p < 0.001), RF (p = 0.001), Vitality (p = 0.002), SF (p < 0.001), RE (p = 0.037), MH (p < 0.001) and SOB (Pre = 53 ± 2, Post = 47 ± 2, p < 0.001). The change in 6MWT distance was not related to changes in PF (r = 0.17), RF (r = 0.03), GH (r = 0.03), Vitality (r = −0.001), SF (r = 0.01), RE (r = 0.06), MH (r = −0.04) or SOB (r = 0.12). The magnitude of improvement in 6MWT distance (68%) was much greater than that observed in PF (15%), RF (16%), GH (6%), VT (18%), SF (20%), RE (14%), MH (14%), or SOB (8%). Conclusions: PR has a positive impact on 6 minute walk distance and perceived quality of life in individuals with COPD; however, changes in 6 minute walk distance appear to have no relationship to changes in perceived quality of life.     

Researching educational praxis: Spectator and participant perspectives

This paper describes two parallel research programmes exploring educational practice/praxis. The first, including a theory of ‘practice architectures’, aims to contribute to contemporary practice theory that views practice from the perspective of a spectator. The second aims to contribute to an emerging (practical philosophy) tradition of ‘researching practice from within practice traditions’ and views practice (and praxis) from the perspective of participants. It is argued that these particular spectator and participant perspectives are complementary. They offer a dual approach to researching educational practice and praxis and allow us (educational actors, educational researchers) to see ourselves as formed by a collective praxis, within which teacher—researchers can aspire to act educationally in the sense of acting for the good for each person and for the good for humankind.     

Hearts in the fire, heads in the fridge: a qualitative investigation into the temporal patterning of the precompetitive psychological response in elite performers

Retrospective perceptions and causal beliefs regarding the temporal patterning of precompetitive psychological responses were examined in 12 elite rugby union players. Composite sequence analysis resulted in a series of temporal networks to describe participants' cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses in a time-to-event paradigm. Match-related cognitions remained stable in the lead up to competition, while perceptions of physical symptoms peaked at the onset of performance. Affective responses were associated with feelings of anxiety and tension in the early temporal phases but excitement, confidence, and efficacy in team-mates directly before competition. Behavioural themes described activities associated with technical and physical preparation, familiarization with environmental conditions, and strategies to control activation states early on or directly before competition. The findings highlight the idiosyncratic and dynamic nature of the temporal patterning of precompetitive responses and the influence that perceptions of the team have upon individual preparation for performance. Implications are discussed in the context of the type and timing of intervention for developing individual and team preparatory routines.