Biomechanical Effects of Fatigue on 10,000 Meter Running Technique

Abstract

A study of the effect of fatigue on the mechanical characteristics of running during a 10,000 meter race was undertaken using high speed cinematography and a computer analysis technique. Eight highly skilled male subjects were filmed at four intervals throughout the event. An analysis of variance for trends was conducted for each of the dependent variables indicating the adjustments made by the runners that accompanied fatigue over the four stages of the event. Runners countered fatigue by changing sections of their total gait pattern (stride length, stride rate, segmental body positions) and reducing running velocity. Toward the end of the race the runners became less competent in the positioning of the foot and leg at foot-strike, which increased the potential for a retarding effect. A more extended lower limb increased the energy requirements of the recovery phase during the latter stages of the race. Fatigue caused these highly skilled runners to systematically alter their technique throughout the race. These adjustments, however, were not excessive.     

There Is an “I” in TEAM

Abstract

We investigated narcissism as a moderator of social loafing on a physical performance task. High and low narcissistic individuals twice performed a cycling task in same-sex teams of three: once when identifiability was low; and once when identifiability was high. A significant interaction between narcissism and identifiability was revealed, F(1, 40) = 4.09, p < .05, η² = .09 for performance. Follow-up tests indicated that high narcissists' performance significantly increased with greater identifiability, whereas low narcissists displayed no such performance differences. Results suggested that this effect was due to an increase in narcissists' on-task effort (ratings of perceived exertion and heart rate) when they knew that their performance was to be identified.     

“It's Cheesy When They Smile

Building on previous research in which we provided an opportunity for female college athletes to construct their own photographic portrayals, this study explored young female athletes' perceptions of the college athlete photographs. Fifty-two girls participated in focus group interviews where they viewed and discussed the images. The young athletes particularly liked images they perceived to show authentic athletes (e.g., in athletic settings, with appropriate sport attire), images they could relate to due to personal experiences, and images that reflected competent and passionate sportswomen. Images perceived as revealing a lack of motivation, poor sporting attitudes, and nonathletic poses generally were disliked. Images depicting multiple social identities (e.g., an athlete in a dress) were controversial and generated much discussion.     

Modifying Equipment in Early Skill Development: A Tennis Perspective

Purpose: The International Tennis Federation recently launched a worldwide campaign advocating the use of equipment scaling for children learning to play tennis. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence that varying racquet sizes and ball compressions had on children's ability to play a forehand groundstroke. Method: This was a quantitative repeated-measures design experiment. Children were required to perform a forehand hitting task using each of 9 combinations of tennis racquets and balls (i.e., 3 racquet sizes × 3 ball compressions). Children's hitting performance was measured using a points system. The aim for the children was to score as many points as possible. Hitting technique was measured via video replay. Results: Hitting performance was best when the smallest racquet combined with the ball with the least compression was used. The ball with the least compression also promoted 2 technique benefits: swinging the racquet from low to high and striking the ball in front and to the side of the body. Conclusions: This study demonstrated the benefits for young children playing with scaled racquets and low-compression balls. The findings are discussed with regards to their relevance to theories of skill acquisition.     

Movement Pattern and Parameter Learning in Children

Reduced feedback during practice has been shown to be detrimental to movement accuracy in children but not in young adults. We hypothesized that the reduced accuracy is attributable to reduced movement parameter learning, but not pattern learning, in children. A rapid arm movement task that required the acquisition of a motor pattern scaled to specific spatial and temporal parameters was used to investigate the effects of feedback (FB) frequency (100% vs. 62% faded) on motor learning differences between 19 school-age children and 19 young adults. Adults and children practiced the task for 200 trials under the 100% or faded FB condition on Day 1 and returned on Day 2 for a no-FB retention test. On the retention test, children who practiced with reduced feedback performed with greater temporal parameter errors, but not pattern error, than children who received frequent feedback. Motor skill learning in children is influenced by feedback frequency during practice that affects parameter learning but not pattern learning.     

Media and Occupational Aspirations: The Effect of Television on Career Aspirations of Adolescents

Vocational decisions are important decisions for adolescents. This article takes television effects into account. A literature review for the occupational world in TV programs reveals a strong focus on some occupations as well as small cultivation effects plus learning effects from mediated role models. A secondary analysis of 2 panel waves was undertaken to study the effect of media role models on occupational aspiration. Television usage in a program segment correlated with corresponding aspirations. A process models showed a strong effect of career aspiration in 1 panel wave on related television usage and career aspirations in the following panel wave.     

Student self-evaluation,teacher evaluation,and learner performance

A total of 341 Latvian students and eight teachers participated in this study of student self-evaluation and teacher evaluation. Students completed a 12-lesson teacher-directed instructional program on conducting and writing a report of their own experimental research. Sixteen classes were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: (1) no in-program evaluation, (2) self-evaluation and revision at the research design and draft final report stages, (3) teacher evaluation and student revision at both stages, (4) self-plus-teacher evaluation and student revision at both stages. Students in the teacher-evaluation and self-plus-teacher evaluation conditions received significantly higher ratings from an independent rater on their final research reports. However, students under the self-evaluation conditions had greater confidence in their ability to conduct future experiments. This research is based on Dr. Olina's dissertation at Arizona State University, and was supported by grants from the Arizona State University Graduate Research Support Program and the Assessment Training Institute Foundaton in Portland, Oregon. We gratefully acknowledge their support.     

What Counts? Sources of Knowledge in Children’s Acquisition of the Successor Function

Although many U.S. children can count sets by 4 years, it is not until 5½–6 years that they understand how counting relates to number—that is, that adding 1 to a set necessitates counting up one number. This study examined two knowledge sources that 3½- to 6-year-olds (N = 136) may leverage to acquire this “successor function”: (a) mastery of productive rules governing count list generation; and (b) training with “+1” math facts. Both productive counting and “+1” math facts were related to understanding that adding 1 to sets entails counting up one number in the count list; however, even children with robust successor knowledge struggled with its arithmetic expression, suggesting they do not generalize the successor function from “+1” math facts.     

Teacher, self and peer evaluation of lesson plans written by preservice teachers

The study investigated the effects of three types of evaluation on preservice teachers’ performance, knowledge and attitudes related to writing lesson plans that incorporate technology. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the three treatment conditions: teacher-evaluation, self-evaluation or peer-evaluation. All groups completed three class periods of instruction on writing lesson plans, then each subject submitted his/her draft lesson plan. The drafts were evaluated by assigned evaluators (teacher, self or peer), who provided scores and written feedback on a 15-item rubric. Students then revised their lesson plans into final form. All three treatment groups improved their lesson plans significantly from draft version to final version, with the teacher-evaluation group showing significantly greater improvement and writing significantly better final lesson plans than each of the other two groups. Teacher-evaluation and self-evaluation groups had significantly higher scores on a knowledge-based posttest than the peer-evaluation group. Several suggestions are discussed for making further improvements in the self-evaluation and peer-evaluation processes.     

Enhancing Quality in Online Learning: Scaffolding Planning and Design Through Proactive Evaluation

A major issue confronting educators is the extent to which they wish to conform to so-called paradigm shifts in teaching and learning. In the contemporary world of tertiary education these shifts embrace both pedagogy (from instructivist to constructivist) and technology (from classroom to online). As teachers and learners are faced with the potential of these new learning environments, the extent to which learning outcomes are achieved remains a high priority and subject to a wide range of evaluation strategies. Conventionally, evaluation has been positioned at the end of the instructional development cycle, to assess first whether or not the creative effort achieved the original product goals and second whether or not the desired learning outcomes were realized. In the context of online teaching and learning environments, however, the level of understanding teachers, learners and developers have of the medium can impact the ultimate effectiveness of the product. This paper articulates an additional dimension to post-development evaluation processes in proposing proactive evaluation, a framework that identifies critical online learning factors and influences that will better inform the planning, design and development of learning resources. This notion of proactive evaluation advocates resource development being undertaken where all planning activities are assessed against the evaluation criteria that would normally be applied during formative assessment. By performing these evaluation checks proactively, online learning resources will, in principle, work first time as all relevant factors and issues will have been considered and resolved. More importantly, for those participants who are new to online environments, proactive evaluation will perform a scaffolding and professional development role by enhancing online teaching or learning competencies.