Training in Its Organizational Context: Sharing Responsibility

A persistent concern of those involved with planning, delivering, and evaluating training as well as of managers is whether training “works.” Addressing that question, this paper proposes that training must be integrated into other aspects of the organization if it is to achieve lasting results. In other words, training must be viewed within its organizational context rather than as a stand‐alone activity. Viewing training contextually raises both training implementation and training evaluation issues. From the implementation perspective, issues abound concerning the best way to link training with other parts of the organization to enhance its effectiveness. From the perspective of evaluation, the difficult issue of accountability arises: Training cannot take responsibility for things beyond its control, but it also cannot abdicate responsibility. How does shared responsibility for results work within an organization? This paper explores these issues by reviewing literature related to training in context, presenting a model for understanding training within an organizational context, and presenting practice implications for trainers.     

Error detection processes during observational learning

The purpose of this experiment was to determine whether a faded knowledge of results (KR) frequency during observation of a model's performance enhanced error detection capabilities. During the observation phase, participants observed a model performing a timing task and received KR about the model's performance on each trial or on one of two trials. Delayed retention and transfer tests were used to assess the observer's ability to detect error in the model's performance and in the participant's performance while physically practicing the task. Results indicated a beneficial effect of a reduced KR frequency for performance stability and the ability to detect errors in both the model and the participant's own performance. The results suggest that aspects of the processing mechanism(s) developed in observational learning and related to KR are probably similar to those developed through physical practice.     

Can observational practice facilitate error recognition and movement production?

Two experiments are reported that examined the usefulness of observational learning for acquiring both error detection and movement production capabilities. In both experiments, individuals were assigned to a no-practice, physical-practice, or observational practice condition. Those assigned to a physical-practice condition acted as models for those assigned as observers. In both experiments, models were administered a random practice of three serial key-press tasks that had the same spatial pattern and same relative timing requirement but differed in the overall time goal. During the retention test, individuals provided estimates of their overall time after each trial. Data from these experiments revealed that error detection and overall time specification were similar following observation and physical practice. However, data from Experiment 2 indicated that physical practice offered an advantage beyond that afforded via observation, with regard to acquiring the appropriate relative time pattern. These data are discussed with respect to the role of observation for learning movement recognition and production processes.     

Programming and reprogramming sequence timing following high and low contextual interference practice

Individuals practiced two unique discrete sequence production tasks that differed in their relative time profile in either a blocked or random practice schedule. Each participant was subsequently administered a "precuing" protocol to examine the cost of initially compiling or modifying the plan for an upcoming movement's relative timing. The findings indicated that, in general, random practice facilitated the programming of the required movement timing, and this was accomplished while exhibiting greater accuracy in movement production. Participants exposed to random practice exhibited the greatest motor programming benefit, when a modification to an already prepared movement timing profile was required. When movement timing was only partially constructed prior to the imperative signal, the individuals who were trained in blocked and random practice formats accrued a similar cost to complete the programming process. These data provide additional support for the recent claim of Immink & Wright (2001) that at least some of the benefit from experience in a random as opposed to blocked training context can be localized to superior development and implementation of the motor programming process before executing the movement.     

The demographic profile of nursing students in Queensland: A comparison between higher education and hospital recruits

This study compares the demographic characteristics of 142 nursing students in hospital programs and 365 nursing students in higher education programs in Queensland. Data were collected on a questionnaire distributed to students during lecture times by a contact person in each institution. No significant difference was found in the gender and age of entry variable. Males from Catholic schools and enrolled nurses were more likely to enter higher education programs than hospital programs. There was no significant difference in the geographic location of the school attended by students between the two institutional sub-groups which suggests that the national transfer of nurse education to higher education institutions will not be a disadvantage to country students.