Constitutional problems concerning admission to institutions of higher education—questions relevant to a German-American comparison

The growing relevance of constitutional law for problems of access to higher education became particularly clear through the Numerus-Clausus decisions of the German Federal Constitutional Court (restricted admission due to lack of capacity) and litigation before the US-Supreme Court (preferential treatment for applicants from minority groups). The constitutions of both countries—the Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany of May 23, 1949 and the Constitution of the United States of September 17, 1789, as amended—are based upon the same essential decisions regarding the fundamental characteristics and objectives of the State. The Federal Republic and the USA are democratic federations of states, committed to the pursuit of the common good, and defined in their form of government by the principle of the rule of law (secured above all by a catalog of basic human rights) as expressed through the doctrine of separation of powers. This article gives an overview of the university (especially its admission system) in both countries and analyses how the constitutions are applied to key problems of access to higher education. It leads to starting points for promising investigations into comparative (constitutional) law.

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Zusammenfassung Der immer grössere Zusammenhang zwischen den Staatsverfassungen und den Zulassungsproblemen zeigte sich sehr deutlich im numerus clausus — Entscheidung des bundesdeutschen Verfassungsgerichtes (beschränkte Zulassung wegen Mangel an Studienplätzen) — und im Rechtsstreit des Obersten Gerichtshofes der Vereinigten Staaten (Vorzugsbehandlung für Bewerber von Minderheitsgruppen). Die Verfassungen beider Länder — das Grundgesetz der Bundesrepublik Deutschland vom 23. Mai 1949 und die Verfassung der Vereinigten Staaten vom 17. September 1798 in ihrer heute gültigen Abänderung — beruhen hinsichtlich der Grundzüge und Ziele des Staates auf den gleichen Entscheidungen. Die Bundesrepublik Deutschland und die USA sind beide demokratische Föderativstaaten, die den sozialen Wohlstand verwirklichen wollen und deren Regierungsform vom Grundsatz des Rechtsstaates bestimmt ist. Dieser findet seinen Ausdruck in der Doktrin der Machtteilung und ist vor allem durch eine Reihe von Menschengrundrechten gesichert. Dieser Artikel gibt eine Übersicht über die Universitäts- und vor allem die Zulassungssysteme beider Länder und analysiert, wie die Verfassungen angewandt werden, um die Probleme der Zulassung zur Hochschulbildung zu lösen. Er bietet Ausgangspunkte für vielversprechende vergleichende (konstitutionelle) Rechtsstudien.

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Résumé Le rapport croissant des constitutions avec les problèmes d'accès à l'enseignement supérieur devint très évident à travers le numerus-clausus — décision du tribunal constitutionnel de la République Fédérale d'Allemagne (admission restreinte dûe au manque de places d'études) — et le litige de la Cour Suprême des Etats-Unis (traitement préférentiel accordé aux candidats de groupes minoritaires). Les constitutions des deux pays — la loi fondamentale de la République Fédérale d'Allemagne du 23 mai 1949 et la constitution des Etats-Unis du 17 septembre 1789, telle qu'elle a été amendée — reposent sur les mêmes décisions essentielles concernant les caractéristiques et objectifs essentiels de l'Etat. La République Fédérale d'Allemagne et les Etats-Unis sont des fédérations démocratiques d'états, qui se sont engagées pour la réalisation du bien-être social et dont la forme de gouvernement est définie par le principe de l'autorité de la loi, tel qu'il est exprimé par la doctrine de la séparation des pouvoirs et assuré avant tout par une série de droits fondamentaux de l'homme. Cet article donne une vue d'ensemble des sytèmes universitaires (et surtout des systèmes d'admission à ces universités) des deux pays et analyse comment les constitutions sont appliquées pour résoudre les problèmes d'accès à l'enseignement supérieur. Il mène à des points de départ pour des études juridiques comparées prometteuses (du point de vue constitutionnel).

     

TGMD-3在中国3~12岁儿童基本运动技能测试中的信效度研究

目的: 验证TGMD-3在中国3~12岁儿童基本运动技能测试中的可靠性和有效性。方法: 选取上海、深圳、重庆、洛阳、长沙的512名3~12岁儿童为研究对象进行TGMD-3测试,对测试的难度、区分度、一致性信度、重测信度和评价者信度、结构效度进行统计检验。结果: TGMD-3的13个项目难度范围为0.27~0.78,区分度范围为0.38~0.49。每个年龄组儿童基本运动技能测试(TGMD-3)的内部一致性系数范围为0.808~0.902,其中男女生的内部一致性系数均为0.95;总体的基本运动技能评价者信度(肯德尔协同系数)w为0.944, 2值为28.331,达到显著性水平;重测检验中,移动式运动技能(组内相关系数)ICC为0.755、球类运动技能(组内相关系数)ICC为0.741、总的基本运动技能(组内相关系数)ICC为0.743,均达到了较高水平。通过探索性因子分析验证了TGMD-3的双因子结构,并通过验证性因子分析支持双因子模型(χ²(64)=103.28,p<0.001,CFI=0.960,TLI=0.952,RMSEA=0.049,SRMR=0.043)。结论: TGMD-3儿童基本运动技能测试具有良好的项目难度、区分度,以及可靠的内部一致性信度、重测信度和结构效度,对我国3~12岁儿童具有良好的适用性,可以作为我国儿童基本运动技能发展评价的有效工具。     

Analgesics use in competitive triathletes: its relationship to doping and on predicting its usage

The two major objectives of this study were (i) to assess variables that predict the use of analgesics in competitive athletes and (ii) to test whether the use of analgesics is associated with the use of doping. A questionnaire primarily addressing the use of analgesics and doping was distributed among 2,997 triathletes. Binary logistic regression analysis was performed to predict the use of analgesics. Moreover, the randomised response technique (RRT) was used to estimate the prevalence of doping in order to assess whether users of analgesics have a higher potential risk for doping than non-users. Statistical power analyses were performed to determine sample size. The bootstrap method was used to assess the statistical significance of the prevalence difference for doping between users and non-users of analgesics. Four variables from a pool of 16 variables were identified that predict the use of analgesics. These were: “version of questionnaire (English)”, “gender (female)”, “behaviour in case of pain (continue training)”, and “hours of training per week (>12 h/week)”. The 12-month prevalence estimate for the use of doping substances (overall estimate 13.0%) was significantly higher in athletes that used analgesics (20.4%) than in those athletes who did not use analgesics (12.4%). The results of this study revealed that athletes who use analgesics prior to competition may be especially prone to using doping substances. The predictors of analgesic use found in the study may be of importance to prepare education material and prevention models against the misuse of drugs in athletes.     

Teachers' goal orientations for teaching: Associations with instructional practices,interest in teaching,and burnout

Two studies (one longitudinal) were designed to extend Butler's model of teachers' goal orientations for teaching. In Study 1, results from 281 teachers in Germany confirmed the predicted four-factor model comprising mastery, ability-approach, ability-avoidance, and work-avoidance goal orientations. As expected, mastery orientation and work avoidance emerged as positive and negative predictors, respectively, of adaptive patterns of instruction (mastery-oriented practices and cognitive stimulation) and high interest in teaching and low burnout; associations for both ability orientations were less consistent. In Study 2, 69 Israeli teachers completed the measures of instructional practices, interest in teaching and burnout several months after reporting their goal orientations. Results were very similar to those of Study 1. The two studies confirm that research on teachers' goal orientation is promising and has implications for understanding how teacher motivation might influence both teachers and their students.     

Students’ emotions during homework in mathematics: Testing a theoretical model of antecedents and achievement outcomes

The experience of pleasant and unpleasant emotions in academic situations is known to affect students’ learning. The aim of the present study was to extend previous research by examining the antecedents and consequences of student emotions in the homework context. Multilevel analyses of a longitudinal dataset containing 3483 grade 9 and grade 10 students in 155 classes showed that the perceived quality of the homework tasks assigned by the teacher affected students’ experience of unpleasant homework-related emotions. Moreover, the experience of unpleasant emotions during homework sessions was negatively related to homework effort and negatively predicted later achievement in mathematics.     

Effort on homework in grades 5-9: development, motivational antecedents, and the association with effort on classwork

In 2 studies, an expectancy-value framework was applied to investigate effort expended on mathematics homework. In Study 1 (2,712 students in grades 5, 7, and 9; mean age=13.37 years), lower homework effort was found in higher grades. The effects of intrinsic value on homework effort were higher in the older cohorts, whereas the effects of the expectancy component were lower. In Study 2 (571 students in grades 8 and 9; mean age=14.72), an expanded expectancy-value framework was found to explain both homework and classwork variables. The means for effort and value were lower for homework than for classwork; these differences were partly moderated by students' conscientiousness. The implications of homework behavior and motivation for developmental research are highlighted.